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| {{center|]<ref>"''The Oxford Guide: Essential Guide to Egyptian Mythology"'', Edited by ], p. 85, Berkley, 2003, {{ISBN|0-425-19096-X}}</ref>}} | {{center|]<ref>"''The Oxford Guide: Essential Guide to Egyptian Mythology"'', Edited by ], p. 85, Berkley, 2003, {{ISBN|0-425-19096-X}}</ref>}}
| {{center|12th Dynasty}} | {{center|]}}
| {{center|1878 BC - 1839 BC}} | {{center|1878 BC - 1839 BC}}
| Senusret III was deified during his lifetime primarily due to his military achievements.<ref>{{Cite book |title=A companion to ancient Egypt |date=2014 |publisher=Wiley Blackwell |isbn=978-1-118-78514-0 |editor-last=Lloyd |editor-first=Alan B. |edition=Paperback |series=Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World |location=Malden, Mass.}}</ref> | Senusret III was deified during his lifetime primarily due to his military achievements.<ref>{{Cite book |title=A companion to ancient Egypt |date=2014 |publisher=Wiley Blackwell |isbn=978-1-118-78514-0 |editor-last=Lloyd |editor-first=Alan B. |edition=Paperback |series=Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World |location=Malden, Mass.}}</ref>
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| {{center|]<ref name="z465">{{cite book | last=Kozloff | first=Arielle P. | title=Amenhotep III | publisher=Cambridge University Press | publication-place=Cambridge ; New York | date=2012-02-20 | isbn=1-107-01196-5 | page=2, 51, 121, 174, 197}}</ref>}} | {{center|]<ref name="z465">{{cite book | last=Kozloff | first=Arielle P. | title=Amenhotep III | publisher=Cambridge University Press | publication-place=Cambridge ; New York | date=2012-02-20 | isbn=1-107-01196-5 | page=2, 51, 121, 174, 197}}</ref>}}
| {{center|18th Dynasty}} | {{center|]}}
| {{center|1388 BC – 1351 BC}} | {{center|1388 BC – 1351 BC}}
| Amenhotep III initiated his own self-deification<ref name="o193">{{cite journal | last=Laboury | first=Dimitri | title=Senwosret III and the Issue of Portraiture in Ancient Egyptian Art | journal=Cahier de Recherches de L'Institut de Papyrologie et d'Égyptologie de Lille | publisher=Université de Lille, Lille, France | date=2017 | issn=0153-5021 | url=https://orbi.uliege.be/handle/2268/223728 | access-date=2025-01-09 | page=77}}</ref> towards the end of his lifetime as ''the dazzling ]'',<ref name="f466">{{cite book | last=O'Connor | first=David Bourke | last2=Cline | first2=Eric H. | title=Amenhotep III: perspectives on his reign | publisher=University of Michigan Press | publication-place=Ann Arbor | date=2001 | isbn=0-472-08833-5 | page=87, 89-91, 94, 294}}</ref><ref name="m083">{{cite book | title=Tutankhamun: discovering the forgotten Pharaoh: exhibition organized at the Europa expo space TGV train station "les Guillemins", Liège, 14th December 2019-30th August 2020 | publisher=Presses universitaires de Liège | publication-place=Liège | date=2020 | isbn=2-87562-245-5 | page=239}}</ref> simultaneously deifying his wife, ].<ref name="w059">{{cite book | last=Darnell | first=John Coleman | last2=Manassa | first2=Colleen | title=Tutankhamun's Armies | publisher=John Wiley & Sons | publication-place=Hoboken, N.J. | date=2007-08-03 | isbn=0-471-74358-5 | page=24}}</ref><ref name="o500">{{cite web | title=Queen Tiye and her Family | website=ProQuest | date=2000-01-01 | url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/1293472880?fromopenview=true&imgSeq=1&pq-origsite=gscholar&sourcetype=Scholarly%20Journals | access-date=2025-01-06}}</ref> | Amenhotep III initiated his own self-deification<ref name="o193">{{cite journal | last=Laboury | first=Dimitri | title=Senwosret III and the Issue of Portraiture in Ancient Egyptian Art | journal=Cahier de Recherches de L'Institut de Papyrologie et d'Égyptologie de Lille | publisher=Université de Lille, Lille, France | date=2017 | issn=0153-5021 | url=https://orbi.uliege.be/handle/2268/223728 | access-date=2025-01-09 | page=77}}</ref> towards the end of his lifetime as ''the dazzling ]'',<ref name="f466">{{cite book | last=O'Connor | first=David Bourke | last2=Cline | first2=Eric H. | title=Amenhotep III: perspectives on his reign | publisher=University of Michigan Press | publication-place=Ann Arbor | date=2001 | isbn=0-472-08833-5 | page=87, 89-91, 94, 294}}</ref><ref name="m083">{{cite book | title=Tutankhamun: discovering the forgotten Pharaoh: exhibition organized at the Europa expo space TGV train station "les Guillemins", Liège, 14th December 2019-30th August 2020 | publisher=Presses universitaires de Liège | publication-place=Liège | date=2020 | isbn=2-87562-245-5 | page=239}}</ref> simultaneously deifying his wife, ].<ref name="w059">{{cite book | last=Darnell | first=John Coleman | last2=Manassa | first2=Colleen | title=Tutankhamun's Armies | publisher=John Wiley & Sons | publication-place=Hoboken, N.J. | date=2007-08-03 | isbn=0-471-74358-5 | page=24}}</ref><ref name="o500">{{cite web | title=Queen Tiye and her Family | website=ProQuest | date=2000-01-01 | url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/1293472880?fromopenview=true&imgSeq=1&pq-origsite=gscholar&sourcetype=Scholarly%20Journals | access-date=2025-01-06}}</ref>
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|- |-
| {{center|]<ref name="f073">{{cite book | last=Press | first=Oxford University | title=The Oxford Essential Guide to Egyptian Mythology | publisher=Berkley Books | date=2003 | isbn=978-0-425-19096-8 | page=85}}</ref>}} | {{center|]<ref name="f073">{{cite book | last=Press | first=Oxford University | title=The Oxford Essential Guide to Egyptian Mythology | publisher=Berkley Books | date=2003 | isbn=978-0-425-19096-8 | page=85}}</ref>}}
| {{center|18th Dynasty}} | {{center|]}}
| {{center|1388 BC – 1351 BC}} | {{center|1388 BC – 1351 BC}}
| A cult devoted to the deified form of Tutankhamun as the god ] developed after he overturned ].<ref>Bell, L. (1985). Aspects of the Cult of the Deified Tutankhamun.</ref> | A cult devoted to the deified form of Tutankhamun as the god ] developed after he overturned ].<ref>Bell, L. (1985). Aspects of the Cult of the Deified Tutankhamun.</ref>
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| {{center|]<ref name="d203">{{cite journal | last=Lichtheim | first=Miriam | title=Features of the Deification of Ramesses II . Labib Habachi | journal=Journal of Near Eastern Studies | volume=32 | issue=3 | date=1973 | issn=0022-2968 | doi=10.1086/372293 | pages=354–355}}</ref>}} | {{center|]<ref name="d203">{{cite journal | last=Lichtheim | first=Miriam | title=Features of the Deification of Ramesses II . Labib Habachi | journal=Journal of Near Eastern Studies | volume=32 | issue=3 | date=1973 | issn=0022-2968 | doi=10.1086/372293 | pages=354–355}}</ref>}}
| {{center|19th Dynasty}} | {{center|]}}
| {{center|1279 BC – 1213 BC}} | {{center|1279 BC – 1213 BC}}
| Ramesses II deified himself during their lifetime primarily for his military campaigns and diplomatic successes.<ref name="m330">{{cite book | last=Furlan | first=Urška | last2=Husøy | first2=Thomas Alexander | last3=Bohun | first3=Henry | title=Narratives of Power in the Ancient World | publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing | publication-place=Newcastle-upon-Tyne | date=2022-09-30 | isbn=1-5275-8276-0 | page=64}}</ref> He concurrently deified his wife ].<ref name="k630">{{cite web | last=Xekalaki | first=Zeta | title=Aspects of the Cultic Role of Queen Nefertari and the Royal Children during the Reign of Ramesses II | website=Academia.edu | date=2011-09-28 | url=https://www.academia.edu/960459/Aspects_of_the_Cultic_Role_of_Queen_Nefertari_and_the_Royal_Children_during_the_Reign_of_Ramesses_II | access-date=2025-01-13}}</ref> | Ramesses II deified himself during his lifetime<ref name="l615">{{cite journal | last=Price | first=Campbell | title=&#39;Ramesses, &quot;King of Kings&quot;: On the Context and Interpretation of Royal Colossi&#39;. | journal=S. Snape and M. Collier (eds) Ramesside Studies in Honour of K. A. Kitchen (Rutherford Press, Bolton, 2011), 403-411. | date=2011-01-01 | url=https://www.academia.edu/410571/Ramesses_King_of_Kings_On_the_Context_and_Interpretation_of_Royal_Colossi | access-date=2025-01-13 | page=404}}</ref> as the god ], his favorite god<ref name="t696">{{cite web | last=Treasure | first=Matthew | title=Four Faces on One Neck: The Tetracephalic Ram as an Iconographic Form in New Kingdom Egypt | website=Academia.edu | date=2021-01-01 | url=https://www.academia.edu/49077937/Four_Faces_on_One_Neck_The_Tetracephalic_Ram_as_an_Iconographic_Form_in_New_Kingdom_Egypt | access-date=2025-01-13}}</ref>, while retaining his own personal identity,<ref name="a572">{{cite book | last=Eyma | first=A. K. | last2=Bennett | first2=C. J. | title=A Delta-man in Yebu | publisher=Universal-Publishers | publication-place=S.l. | date=2003 | isbn=1-58112-564-X | page=}}</ref> primarily for his military campaigns and diplomatic successes.<ref name="m330">{{cite book | last=Furlan | first=Urška | last2=Husøy | first2=Thomas Alexander | last3=Bohun | first3=Henry | title=Narratives of Power in the Ancient World | publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing | publication-place=Newcastle-upon-Tyne | date=2022-09-30 | isbn=1-5275-8276-0 | page=64}}</ref> For example, Stele Aksha 505 describes how Ramesses II's status in the army was divine.<ref>A. Rosenvasser, "The Stele Aksha 505 and the Cult of Ramesses II as a God in the Army", RIHAO 1 (1972), p. 104</ref> He concurrently deified his wife ].<ref name="k630">{{cite web | last=Xekalaki | first=Zeta | title=Aspects of the Cultic Role of Queen Nefertari and the Royal Children during the Reign of Ramesses II | website=Academia.edu | date=2011-09-28 | url=https://www.academia.edu/960459/Aspects_of_the_Cultic_Role_of_Queen_Nefertari_and_the_Royal_Children_during_the_Reign_of_Ramesses_II | access-date=2025-01-13}}</ref>
|- |-
|} |}
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===Possibly during-lifetime deified pharaohs=== ===Possibly during-lifetime deified pharaohs===


There is some evidence or speculation that other pharaohs were deified during their lifetimes There is some evidence or speculation that other pharaohs were deified during their lifetimes.


{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders"
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!scope="col"| Deification !scope="col"| Deification
|- |-
!colspan="8"| Pharaonic Egypt !colspan="8"| ]
|- |-
| {{center|]}} | {{center|]}}
| {{center|11th Dynasty}} | {{center|]}}
| {{center|2060 BC – 2009 BC}} | {{center|2060 BC – 2009 BC}}
| It has been stipulated that Mentuhotep II was deified during his lifetime but this is disputed.<ref name="j503">{{cite journal | last=Karwowska | first=Paulina | title=In the presence of my king forever: Royal images in the tombs of noblemen of the Middle Kingdom and beyond | journal=Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean | volume=32 | issue=2 | date=2023 | issn=2083-537X | doi=10.37343/uw.2083-537X.pam32.2.08 | page=160}}</ref> | It has been stipulated that Mentuhotep II was deified during his lifetime but this is disputed.<ref name="j503">{{cite journal | last=Karwowska | first=Paulina | title=In the presence of my king forever: Royal images in the tombs of noblemen of the Middle Kingdom and beyond | journal=Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean | volume=32 | issue=2 | date=2023 | issn=2083-537X | doi=10.37343/uw.2083-537X.pam32.2.08 | page=160| doi-access=free }}</ref>
|- |-
|- |-
| {{center|]<ref name="d203">{{cite journal | last=Lichtheim | first=Miriam | title=Features of the Deification of Ramesses II . Labib Habachi | journal=Journal of Near Eastern Studies | volume=32 | issue=3 | date=1973 | issn=0022-2968 | doi=10.1086/372293 | pages=354–355}}</ref>}} | {{center|]<ref name="d203">{{cite journal | last=Lichtheim | first=Miriam | title=Features of the Deification of Ramesses II . Labib Habachi | journal=Journal of Near Eastern Studies | volume=32 | issue=3 | date=1973 | issn=0022-2968 | doi=10.1086/372293 | pages=354–355}}</ref>}}
| {{center|18th Dynasty}} | {{center|]}}
| {{center|1351 BC – 1334 BC}} | {{center|1351 BC – 1334 BC}}
| Akhenaten attempted to deify himself during his ] religiopolitical upheaval, although the success of this attempt has not been conferred.<ref name="c618">{{cite journal | last=Wade | first=Sabrina | title=Atenism and Pharaoh Akhenaten’s Attempt to Deify Himself | journal=Armstrong Undergraduate Journal of History | volume=11 | issue=2 | date=2021-10-01 | issn=2163-8551 | doi=10.20429/aujh.2021.110201 | doi-access=free | url=https://digitalcommons.georgiasouthern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1146&context=aujh | access-date=2025-01-06 | page=}}</ref> | Akhenaten attempted to deify himself during his ] religiopolitical upheaval, although the success of this attempt has not been conferred.<ref name="c618">{{cite journal | last=Wade | first=Sabrina | title=Atenism and Pharaoh Akhenaten’s Attempt to Deify Himself | journal=Armstrong Undergraduate Journal of History | volume=11 | issue=2 | date=2021-10-01 | issn=2163-8551 | doi=10.20429/aujh.2021.110201 | doi-access=free | url=https://digitalcommons.georgiasouthern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1146&context=aujh | access-date=2025-01-06 | page=}}</ref>
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|- |-
| {{center|]<ref name="t350">{{cite book | last=Martin | first=Geoffrey Thorndike | title=The Memphite Tomb of Ḥoremḥeb, Commander-in-chief of Tutʻankhamūn: Human skeletal remains | publisher=Egypt Exploration Society | publication-place=London | date=1989 | isbn=978-0-85698-188-3 | page=72, 73}}</ref>}} | {{center|]<ref name="t350">{{cite book | last=Martin | first=Geoffrey Thorndike | title=The Memphite Tomb of Ḥoremḥeb, Commander-in-chief of Tutʻankhamūn: Human skeletal remains | publisher=Egypt Exploration Society | publication-place=London | date=1989 | isbn=978-0-85698-188-3 | page=72, 73}}</ref>}}
| {{center|18th Dynasty}} | {{center|]}}
| {{center|1319 BC – 1292 BC}} | {{center|1319 BC – 1292 BC}}
| There is some evidence that Horemheb had a cult devotion during his lifetime,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aegyptologie.com/forum/attachments/Haremhab-Uraeus_Martin.pdf |title=www.aegyptologie.com |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref> although this is disputed.<ref name="d363">{{cite web | last=Bryson | first=Karen M | title=The Reign of Horemheb: History, Historiography, and the Dawn of the Ramesside Era | website=JScholarship | date=2018-04-13 | url=https://jscholarship.library.jhu.edu/items/bdee9c60-5ff6-4026-99ea-5ef6f8aa5507 | access-date=2025-01-06}}</ref> | There is some evidence that Horemheb had a cult devotion during his lifetime,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aegyptologie.com/forum/attachments/Haremhab-Uraeus_Martin.pdf |title=www.aegyptologie.com |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref> although this is disputed.<ref name="d363">{{cite web | last=Bryson | first=Karen M | title=The Reign of Horemheb: History, Historiography, and the Dawn of the Ramesside Era | website=JScholarship | date=2018-04-13 | url=https://jscholarship.library.jhu.edu/items/bdee9c60-5ff6-4026-99ea-5ef6f8aa5507 | access-date=2025-01-06}}</ref>
|- |-
|- |-
!colspan="8"|Greco–Roman Period !colspan="8"|]
|- |-
| {{center|]}} | {{center|]}}
| {{center|Ptolemaic Dynasty}} | {{center|]}}
| {{center|309 BC - 246 BC}} | {{center|309 BC - 246 BC}}
| Ptolemy II Philadelphus initiated a self-deification<ref name="j856">{{cite book | last=Mittelman | first=Rachel J. | title=Community and Identity at the Edges of the Classical World | chapter=Macedonian, Greek, or Egyptian? Navigating the royal additive identities of Ptolemy I Soter and Ptolemy II Philadelphus | publisher=Wiley | date=2020-10-07 | isbn=978-1-119-63071-5 | doi=10.1002/9781119630746.ch7 | page=119–137}}</ref><ref name="q686">{{cite book | last=McKechnie | first=Paul | last2=Guillaume | first2=Philippe | title=Ptolemy II Philadelphus and his World | publisher=BRILL | publication-place=Leiden Boston | date=2008-11-30 | isbn=978-90-474-2420-8 | page=}}</ref> he and his sister-wife, ],<ref name="v329">{{cite web | last=Lorenzi | first=Rossella | title=Cleopatra Not First Female Pharoah of Her Line | website=NBC News | date=2010-12-03 | url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna40491275 | access-date=2025-01-12}}</ref> ''Theoi Adelphoi'' (brother-sister gods).<ref name="g228">{{cite journal | last=Abd El Tawab Nour El Hady El Sherif | first=Yasser | title=The Effect of the Legend of Osiris on the Behaviour of the King Ptolemy Philadelphus | journal=Journal of Association of Arab Universities for Tourism and Hospitality | volume=17 | issue=1 | date=2019-12-01 | issn=1687-1863 | doi=10.21608/jaauth.2019.76468 | doi-access=free | pages=16–25 | url=https://jaauth.journals.ekb.eg/article_76468_31320d29e7fb8128a85902376abcdf0a.pdf | access-date=2025-01-12}}</ref> | Ptolemy II Philadelphus initiated a self-deification<ref name="j856">{{cite book | last=Mittelman | first=Rachel J. | title=Community and Identity at the Edges of the Classical World | chapter=Macedonian, Greek, or Egyptian? Navigating the royal additive identities of Ptolemy I Soter and Ptolemy II Philadelphus | publisher=Wiley | date=2020-10-07 | isbn=978-1-119-63071-5 | doi=10.1002/9781119630746.ch7 | page=119–137}}</ref><ref name="q686">{{cite book | last=McKechnie | first=Paul | last2=Guillaume | first2=Philippe | title=Ptolemy II Philadelphus and his World | publisher=BRILL | publication-place=Leiden Boston | date=2008-11-30 | isbn=978-90-474-2420-8 | page=}}</ref> he and his sister-wife, ],<ref name="v329">{{cite web | last=Lorenzi | first=Rossella | title=Cleopatra Not First Female Pharoah of Her Line | website=NBC News | date=2010-12-03 | url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna40491275 | access-date=2025-01-12}}</ref> ''Theoi Adelphoi'' (brother-sister gods).<ref name="g228">{{cite journal | last=Abd El Tawab Nour El Hady El Sherif | first=Yasser | title=The Effect of the Legend of Osiris on the Behaviour of the King Ptolemy Philadelphus | journal=Journal of Association of Arab Universities for Tourism and Hospitality | volume=17 | issue=1 | date=2019-12-01 | issn=1687-1863 | doi=10.21608/jaauth.2019.76468 | doi-access=free | pages=16–25 | url=https://jaauth.journals.ekb.eg/article_76468_31320d29e7fb8128a85902376abcdf0a.pdf | access-date=2025-01-12}}</ref>
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|- |-
| {{center|]}} | {{center|]}}
| {{center|Ptolemaic Dynasty}} | {{center|]}}
| {{center|280 BC - 222 BC }} | {{center|280 BC - 222 BC }}
| Following precedent of Ptolemy II, Ptolemy III deified himself and his wife, ], as ''Theoi Eurgetai'' (benefactor gods).<ref name="d919">{{cite journal | last=Suto | first=Yoshiyuki | title=Common Savior and Benefactor of All:Popular Conception of Kingship in Ptolemaic Egypt | journal=Orient | volume=59 | issue=0 | date=2024-03-31 | issn=0473-3851 | doi=10.5356/orient.59.79 | doi-access=free | pages=86}}</ref> | Following precedent of Ptolemy II, Ptolemy III deified himself and his wife, ], as ''Theoi Eurgetai'' (benefactor gods).<ref name="d919">{{cite journal | last=Suto | first=Yoshiyuki | title=Common Savior and Benefactor of All:Popular Conception of Kingship in Ptolemaic Egypt | journal=Orient | volume=59 | issue=0 | date=2024-03-31 | issn=0473-3851 | doi=10.5356/orient.59.79 | doi-access=free | pages=86}}</ref>

Latest revision as of 23:36, 14 January 2025

Temple of Ramesses II at Abu Simbel, Egypt depicting, from left to right, the god Ra-Horakhty, the deified form of Ramesses II, and the gods Amun Ra and Ptah

In ancient Egypt, it was standard for pharaohs to be worshipped posthumously as transfigured beings amongst the royal ancestors. This was generally performed in the form of a mortuary cult. During the pharaoh's lifetime, they were generally recognized as having divine properties, in accordance with imperial cult government. However, it was exceedingly rare for a pharaoh to have a cultic devotion to their worship as a deity during the lifetime of the pharaoh. A few pharaohs are exceptions to this, usually as a result of successful self-deification attempts typically substantiated by military accomplishment or political leadership.

During-lifetime deified pharaohs

A few pharaohs have been confirmed to have been honored with cultic worship as deities during their lifetime:

Table of during-life deified pharaohs
Pharaoh Dynasty Regal Years Deification
Senusret III 12th Dynasty 1878 BC - 1839 BC Senusret III was deified during his lifetime primarily due to his military achievements.
Amenhotep III 18th Dynasty 1388 BC – 1351 BC Amenhotep III initiated his own self-deification towards the end of his lifetime as the dazzling Aten, simultaneously deifying his wife, Queen Tiye.
Tutankhamun 18th Dynasty 1388 BC – 1351 BC A cult devoted to the deified form of Tutankhamun as the god Amun developed after he overturned Atenism.
Ramesses II 19th Dynasty 1279 BC – 1213 BC Ramesses II deified himself during his lifetime as the god Amun, his favorite god, while retaining his own personal identity, primarily for his military campaigns and diplomatic successes. For example, Stele Aksha 505 describes how Ramesses II's status in the army was divine. He concurrently deified his wife Queen Nefertari.

It was incredibly rare for a pharaoh to gain cult devotion during their lifetime.

Possibly during-lifetime deified pharaohs

There is some evidence or speculation that other pharaohs were deified during their lifetimes.

Table of possibly during-life deified pharaohs
Pharaoh Dynasty Regal Years Deification
Pharaonic Egypt
Mentuhotep II 11th Dynasty 2060 BC – 2009 BC It has been stipulated that Mentuhotep II was deified during his lifetime but this is disputed.
Akhenaten 18th Dynasty 1351 BC – 1334 BC Akhenaten attempted to deify himself during his Atenism religiopolitical upheaval, although the success of this attempt has not been conferred.
Horemheb 18th Dynasty 1319 BC – 1292 BC There is some evidence that Horemheb had a cult devotion during his lifetime, although this is disputed.
Greco–Roman Period
Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemaic Dynasty 309 BC - 246 BC Ptolemy II Philadelphus initiated a self-deification he and his sister-wife, Arsinoe II, Theoi Adelphoi (brother-sister gods).
Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemaic Dynasty 280 BC - 222 BC Following precedent of Ptolemy II, Ptolemy III deified himself and his wife, Berenice II, as Theoi Eurgetai (benefactor gods).

References

  1. Bommas, Martin; Harrisson, Juliette; Roy, Phoebe (2012-12-06). Memory and Urban Religion in the Ancient World. London New Delhi New York Sydney: A&C Black. ISBN 978-1-4411-3014-3.
  2. Meskell, Lynn (2001). "The Egyptian Ways of Death". Archaeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association. 10 (1): 27–40. doi:10.1525/ap3a.2001.10.1.27. ISSN 1551-823X.
  3. Bryson, Karen (Maggie) (2018-11-16). ""Man, King, God? The Deification of Horemheb"". Academia.edu. Retrieved 2025-01-06.
  4. "The Oxford Guide: Essential Guide to Egyptian Mythology", Edited by Donald B. Redford, p. 85, Berkley, 2003, ISBN 0-425-19096-X
  5. Lloyd, Alan B., ed. (2014). A companion to ancient Egypt. Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World (Paperback ed.). Malden, Mass.: Wiley Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-118-78514-0.
  6. Kozloff, Arielle P. (2012-02-20). Amenhotep III. Cambridge ; New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 2, 51, 121, 174, 197. ISBN 1-107-01196-5.
  7. Laboury, Dimitri (2017). "Senwosret III and the Issue of Portraiture in Ancient Egyptian Art". Cahier de Recherches de L'Institut de Papyrologie et d'Égyptologie de Lille. Université de Lille, Lille, France: 77. ISSN 0153-5021. Retrieved 2025-01-09.
  8. O'Connor, David Bourke; Cline, Eric H. (2001). Amenhotep III: perspectives on his reign. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. p. 87, 89-91, 94, 294. ISBN 0-472-08833-5.
  9. Tutankhamun: discovering the forgotten Pharaoh: exhibition organized at the Europa expo space TGV train station "les Guillemins", Liège, 14th December 2019-30th August 2020. Liège: Presses universitaires de Liège. 2020. p. 239. ISBN 2-87562-245-5.
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