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The term polygamy (literally many marriage in late Greek) is used in related ways in social anthropology and sociobiology.

In social anthropology, polygamy is the practice of marriage to more than one spouse simultaneously (as opposed to monogamy where each person has only one spouse at a time). Like monogamy, the term is often used in a de facto sense, applying regardless of whether the relationships are recognised by the state.

In sociobiology, polygamy is used in a broad sense to mean any form of multiple mating. In a narrower sense, used by zoologists, polygamy includes a pair bond, perhaps temporary.

Forms of polygamy

Polygamy exists in three specific forms, including polygyny (one man having multiple wives), polyandry (one woman having multiple husbands), or group marriage (some combination of polygyny and polyandry). Historically, all three practices have been found, but polygyny is by far the most common.

A notable example of polyandry occurs in Hindu culture in the Mahabharata, where the Pandavas are married to one common wife, Draupadi. Today it is almost exclusively observed in the Toda tribe of India, where it is sometimes the custom for several brothers to have one wife. In this context, the practice is intended to keep land (a precious resource in a populous country like India) from being split up amongst male heirs. Polyandry was traditionally practiced among nomadic Tibetans, where it meant two poor brothers sharing a wife.

Group marriage, or circle marriage, may exist in a number of forms, such as where more than one man and more than one woman form a single family unit, and all members of the marriage share parental responsibility for any children arising from the marriage. Another possible arrangement not thought to exist in reality, although occuring in science fiction is the long-lived line marriage, in which deceased or departing spouses in the group are continually replaced by others, so that family property never becomes dispersed through inheritance.

Related terms

Bigamy

Polygamy is an anthropological term. A related legal term is bigamy, which refers to someone who has entered into any number of "secondary" marriages in addition to one legally-recognized marriage. Many countries have specific statutes outlawing bigamy, making any secondary marriage a crime. When a man with three wives is charged, for example, he is charged with two counts of bigamy, for the two "secondary" marriages after the first one.

Polyamory

Main article: Polyamory.

The term polyamory refers to romantic or sexual relationships involving multiple partners at once, regardless of whether they involve marriage. Any polygamous relationship is polyamorous, and some polyamorous relationships involve multiple spouses. "Polygamy" is usually used to refer to multiple marriage, while "polyamory" implies a relationship defined by negotiation between its members rather than cultural norms.

Poly relationship

Main article: Poly relationship.

Other forms of nonmonogamous relationships are discussed at poly relationship.

Polygamy worldwide

According to the Ethnographic Atlas Codebook derived from George P. Murdock’s Ethnographic Atlas recorded the marital composition of 1231 societies, from 1960-1980. Of these societies, 186 societies were monogamous. 453 had occasional polygyny, 588 had more frequent polygyny, and 4 had polyandry.

Patterns of occurrence

At the same time, even within societies which allow polygamy, the actual practice of polygamy often occurs only rarely. To take on more than one wife often requires considerable financial resources: this may put polygamy beyond the means of the vast majority of people within those societies. Such appears the case in many traditional Islamic societies, and in Imperial China.

Within polygamous societies, multiple wives often become a status symbol denoting wealth and power. Similarly, within societies which formally prohibit polygamy, social opinion may look favorably on persons maintaining mistresses or engaging in serial monogamy.

Some observers detect a social preference for polygyny in disease-prone (especially tropical) climates, and speculate that (from a potential mother's viewpoint) perceived quality of paternal genes may favour the practice there. The countervailing situation allegedly prevails in harsher climates, where (once again from a potential mother's viewpoint) reliable paternal care as exhibited in monogamous pair-bonding outweighs the importance of paternal genes.

Polygamy and religion

Hinduism

In Hinduism, polygamy was practiced since ancient times. Hinduism does not prohibit polygamy, nor encourage it. The reason for this is because to have more than one wife, again means to be able to support them financially. Historically, only kings, in practice, were polygamous, and this in part because they could afford it. For example, the Vijanagar emperor, Krishnadevaraya had multiple wives. In actuality Hinduism, and for that matter other Indian religions such as Buddhism, & Jainism, actually consent for a man or woman to marry more than one person. The problem is most people cannot afford to have more than one partner, and have the time to raise multiple kids with multiple partners. Because of this it is not practiced in India. And as mentioned before, Indian religions allow women to marry more than one man. But again this is rarely practiced, if ever. However, Muslims in India are allowed to have multiple wives. As of October, 2004, marriage laws in India are dependent upon the religion of the subject in question. There have been efforts to propose a uniform marital law that would treat all Indians the same, irrespective of religion, but this has not occurred as of yet.

Judaism

Although classical Jewish literature indicates that polygamy was permitted, the various segments of Judaism have now outlawed polygamy. The first was Ashkenazi Jewry, which followed Rabbenu Gershom's ban since the 11th century. However, there are some who claim the ban was a temporary measure that no longer applies according to the Jewish law and want to restore polygamy. See Jewish Doctrines Pertaining To Polygamy. Some Sephardi and Mizrahi groups only discontinued polygamy much more recently, to the point that the State of Israel had to make provisions for polygamic families immigrating after its 1948 creation. Many Jewish families from countries such as Iran and Yemen were assimilated to the general common culture of a family made up of a man, two or more wives, and their children.

Christian

Saint Augustine demonstrated the conflict with Old Testament polygamy in The Good of Marriage (chapter 15, paragraph 17), where he wrote that though it "was lawful among the ancient fathers: whether it be lawful now also, I would not hastily pronounce. For there is not now necessity of begetting children, as there then was, when, even when wives bear children, it was allowed, in order to a more numerous posterity, to marry other wives in addition, which now is certainly not lawful." He declined to judge the patriarchs, but did not deduce from their practice the ongoing acceptability of polygamy. In another place, he wrote, "Now indeed in our time, and in keeping with Roman custom, it is no longer allowed to take another wife, so as to have more than one wife living ."

Jesus states in Matthew 19:8-9, "Moses permitted you to divorce your wives because your hearts were hard. But it was not this way from the beginning. I tell you that anyone who divorces his wife, except for marital unfaithfulness, and marries another woman commits adultery." The same sentiment is echoed in Mark 10:10 where Jesus states "Anyone who divorces his wife and marries another woman commits adultery against her. And if she divorces her husband and marries another man, she commits adultery." While some state that the Bible says nothing negative about polygamy, others find these statements of Christ to be nonsensical if polygamy and adultery are not the same thing in the eyes of God. Paul further adds in Titus 1:6 "An elder must be blameless, the husband of but one wife."

Periodically, Christian reform movements that have aimed at rebuilding Christian doctrine based on the Bible alone (sola scriptura) have at least temporarily accepted polygamy as a Biblical practice. During the Protestant Reformation, Martin Luther advised Philip of Hesse that although he found nothing unbiblical about polygamy, he should keep his second marriage a secret to avoid public scandal. The radical Anabaptists of Münster also practiced polygamy, but they had little influence after the defeat of the Münster Rebellion in 1535. Other Protestant leaders including John Calvin condemned polygamy, and at any rate sanctioned polygamy did not survive long within Protestantism.

"On February 14, 1650, the parliament at Nürnberg decreed that because so many men were killed during the Thirty Years’ War, the churches for the following ten years could not admit any man under the age of 60 into a monastery. Priests and ministers not bound by any monastery were allowed to marry. Lastly, the decree stated that every man was allowed to marry up to ten women. The men were admonished to behave honorably, provide for their wives properly, and prevent animosity among them." Larry O. Jensen, A Genealogical Handbook of German Research (Rev. Ed., 1980) p. 59 .

The modern trend towards frequent divorce and remarriage is sometimes refered to by Christians as 'serial polygamy'.

Islam

Muslim polygamy, in practice and law, differs greatly throughout the Islamic world. In some Muslim countries, polygamy is relatively common, while in most others, it is often rare or non-existent. Polygamy is most widely practiced by Muslims in West Africa (where it is also widely practiced by non-Muslims), as well as in certain traditionalist Arabian states such as Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates; in the rest of the Muslim world, it is extremely rare, with some countries even banning it. One of the reasons that polygamy is rarely practiced in much of the muslim world is because you must be very wealthy in order to have multiple wives. Each wife must have her own house, car, etc.

In Muslim countries where polygamy does occur, there are certain core fundamentals found in common among most of them. According to traditional Islamic law, a man may take up to four wives, and each of those wives must have her own property, assets, and dowry, and as many slave women as he can afford. Usually the wives have little to no contact with each other and lead separate, individual lives in their own houses, and sometimes in different cities, though they all share the same husband. Thus, Muslim polygamy is traditionally restricted to wealthy men, and in some countries it is illegal for a man to marry multiple wives if he is unable to afford to take care of each of them properly.

Islam allows a man to have up to four wives at any one time. However, a woman cannot have more than one husband at a time. The Qur'an in verse 4:3 states (English translation by Dr Muhammad Taqi-ul-Din Al Hilali and Dr Muhammad Muhsin Khan):

"And if you fear you shall not be able to deal justly with the orphan girls, then marry (other) women of your choice; 2, 3 or 4, but if you fear you may not be able to deal justly (with them) then only one."

This verse is linked to the preceding verse which relates to a man taking an orphaned girl as his wife. The caregivers of these orphan girls have an unfair advantage (especially during the time during which the Qur'an was revealed) over them if they wish to marry them. Being their guardians, they may be tempted to marry them without paying them their full dowries or in order to confiscate their inheritance. This verse is telling these men that if they fear that they cannot deal justly with the orphans whom they wish to marry, then they should marry other women (not orphaned women but free women with guardians and families who can look over and protect their rights).

It's important to note the context within which the term 'orphan girls' is being used here. Orphaned girls (that is, orphaned of both mother and father as well as any immediate family to look after them) at the time when the Qur'an was revealed had very low status in society and virtually no recognisable rights, unless a caregiver chose to take them in. The relationship of the caregiver to the orphaned girl would have to satisfy the criteria set out in the Qur'an verses 4:23 and 4:24 as to which women a man is permitted to marry under Islamic law in order for verse 4:3 to be valid.

Some Muslims, however, believe that polygamy is restricted (e.g. ). They quote the following verse 4:129, (translation by Yusuf Ali):

"Ye are never able to be fair and just as between women, even if it is your ardent desire: But turn not away (from a woman) altogether, so as to leave her (as it were) hanging (in the air). If ye come to a friendly understanding, and practise self-restraint, Allah is Oft-forgiving, Most Merciful."

This, combined with the requirement for fairness stated in 4:3 and arguments based on its context, has led them to conclude that polygamy is only sanctioned in exceptional circumstances - e.g. when there is a shortage of male adults after a war - and that monogamy is generally preferable. Opponents of this view believe that verse 4:129 does not seek to discourage polygamy, but instead guides the husband on how to treat all of his wives fairly in practice, even though, in term of (love and emotions) he will not be able to love and feel the same for them (all) equally.

Even though Muhammed was himself polygamous, he expressed disapproval of it for his own daughter, Fatima and recognised that it would emotionally upset her. According to Bukhari (who mentions the hadith twice, Book 7, Number 115 and 152),

"I heard Allah’s apostle who was in the pulpit saying "The Bano-hisham bin Al-Mughira have requested me to allow them to marry their daughter to Ali bin Abi Taleb, but I do not give them permission and will not give permission unless Ali divorces my daughter because Fatima is a part of my body, and I hate what she hates to see and what hurts her."

Mormon

See main articles: Plural marriage, Plural wives of Joseph Smith, Jr., Polygamous Mormon fundamentalists.

Early in its history The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints practised polygamy in the United States and referred to it as "plural marriage". Polygamy was not an original part of the Mormon doctrine. In 1843 Joseph Smith Jr., the founder and father of the Mormon religion, received another revelation on Celestial marraige. Smith justified this new revelation by citing the example of Abraham and Jacob. Smith said that polygamous marriage guaranteed men more virgins in the celestial heaven. Wives would have to consent to more polygamous marriages but they would be "damned" if they did not consent.

When Brigham Young led the church to Utah he asked to territory to give the Mormons the right to perform their own marriages. This led to the church taking over the territory and the relaxing of their restrictions on polygamy.

The practice of polygamy quickly led to persecution of the Church. Many novelists began to write books and pamphlets condemning polygamy. They portrayed polygamous marriage as a legalized form of slavery. The outcry against polygamy eventually led to the federal government's involvement and the enacting of anti-polygamy laws. (The U.S. Congress made the practice illegal in U.S. Territories in 1862). Many members of the Church fled to Canada in an attempt to set up communities free from prosecution; for example, Cyril Ogston founded Seven Persons, Alberta. Although Latter-day Saints believed that their religiously-based practice of plural marriage was protected by the United States Constitution, opponents used it to delay Utah statehood until 1896. Increasingly harsh anti-polygamy legislation stripped Church members of their rights as citizens, disincorporated the Church, and permitted the seizure of Church property until the Church ordered the discontinuance of the practice in 1890.

National attention in the United States again focused on potential polygamy among the Church in the early 20th century during the House hearings on Representative-elect B. H. Roberts and Senate hearings on Senator-elect Reed Smoot (the Smoot Hearings). This caused Church president Joseph F. Smith to issue his "Second Manifesto" against polygamy in 1904. Since that time, it has been Church policy to excommunicate any member either practicing or openly advocating the practice of polygamy.

The ban on polygamy resulted in a schism within the Church, with various splinter groups leaving the Church to continue the practice of polygamy. Polygamy among these groups persists today in Utah and neighboring states, as well as among isolated individuals with no organized church affiliation. Polygamists of this kind are sometimes called "Mormon fundamentalists", despite their lack of affiliation with the mainstream Church. According to one source there are as many as 37,000 Fundamentalist Mormons, with less than half of them living in polygamous households . Most of the polygamy is believed to be restricted to about a dozen extended groups of polygamous Mormon fundamentalists.

The practice of informal polygamy among these groups presents itself with interesting legal issues. It has been considered difficult to prosecute polygamists partly because they are not formally married under Utah law. Without evidence that suspected offenders have multiple, formal or common-law marriages, these groups are merely subject to the laws against adultery or unlawful cohabitation. These laws are not commonly enforced because they also criminalize other behavior that is otherwise socially sanctioned.

However, some "Mormon fundamentalist" polygamists marry women prior to the age of consent. In 2005, the state attorneys-general of Utah and Arizona issued a primer on helping victims of domestic violence and child abuse in "Mormon fundamentalist" polygamous communities. Enforcement of other crimes such as child abuse, domestic violence, and fraud were emphasized over the enforcement of anti-polygamy laws.

Legal situation

Secular law in most western countries with large Jewish and Christian populations does not recognise polygamous marriages. However, few such countries have any laws against living a polygamous lifestyle: they simply refuse to give it any official recognition. Parts of the United States, however, criminalise even the polygamous lifestyle, which is unusual; these laws originated as anti-Mormon legislation, although they are rarely enforced.

Multiple divorce and marriage for polygamy

Some polygamous families use a system of multiple divorce and legal marriage. This is where the husband marries the first wife, she takes his last name, he divorces her and then marries the next wife who takes his name. For polyandry relationships, it is the wife that marries and divorces the husbands one after another. This is repeated until he has married and divorced all his wives, except possibly the last one. This way the wives feel justified in calling themselves Mrs. and, while legally they're divorced from the husband, they act still married to him and expect those around them to acknowledge and respect this.

Since only one wife is married to the husband at any one time, no law was being broken and so this type of polygamous family unit could be overt about their relationship.

This changed in 2001, with the conviction of Thomas Arthur Green -- .

Recent polygamy prosections and convictions

In 2001, the state of Utah in the United States convicted Tom Green of criminal non-support and four counts of bigamy for having 5 serially monogamous marriages, while living with previous legally divorced wives. His cohabitation was considered evidence of a common-law marriage to the wives he had divorced while still living with them. That premise was subsequently affirmed by the Utah Supreme Court in State v. Green, as applicable only in the State of Utah. Green was also convicted of child rape and criminal non-support. In 2005, the state attorneys-general of Utah and Arizona issued a primer on helping victims of domestic violence and child abuse in polygamous communities. These states are emphasizing enforcement of crimes of child abuse, domestic violence, and fraud over the enforcement of the crime of bigamy. The priorities of local prosecutors are not covered by this statement.

Deseret News article about Tom Green

Current proponents and opponents

David Friedman and Steve Sailer have argued that polygamy tends to benefit most women and disadvantage most men. Friedman uses this observation to argue in favor of legalizing polygamy, while Sailer uses it to argue against legalizing it.

The Libertarian Party supports complete decriminalization of polygamy as part of a general belief that the government should not regulate marriages.

Individualist feminism and advocates such as Wendy McElroy also support the freedom for adults to voluntarily enter polygamous marriages.

The illegality of polygamy in certain areas creates, according to certain Bible passages, additional arguments against it. Paul of Tarsus writes "submit to the authorities, not only because of possible punishment but also because of conscience" (Romans 13:5), for "the authorities that exist have been established by God." (Romans 13:1) St Peter concurs when he says to "submit yourselves for the Lord's sake to every authority instituted among men: whether to the king, as the supreme authority, or to governors, who are sent by him to punish those who do wrong and to commend those who do right." (1 Peter 2:13,14) Pro-polygamists argue that, as long as polygamists currently do not obtain legal marriage licenses for additional spouses, no enforced laws are being broken any more than when monogamous couples who similarly co-habitate without a marriage license. The "Law of the Land" page at BiblicalPolygamy.com provides and addresses more details on that specific issue.

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints supports enforcing laws against polygamy.

The Catholic Church clearly condemns polygamy; the Catechism of the Catholic Church lists it in paragraph 2387 under the head "Other offenses against the dignity of marriage" and states that it "is not in accord with the moral law." Also in paragraph 1645 under the head "The Goods and Requirements of Conjugal Love" states "The unity of marriage, distinctly recognized by our Lord, is made clear in the equal personal dignity which must be accorded to man and wife in mutual and unreserved affection. Polygamy is contrary to conjugal love which is undivided and exclusive."

The ACLU of Utah is opposed to Utah's law against bigamy.

Those who advocate a Federal Marriage Amendment to prohibit same-sex marriage generally word their proposed laws to also prohibit polygamy.

United States Senator Rick Santorum opposes polygamy, comparing it to sodomy and adultery.

Robert Heinlein was a science fiction writer who discussed polygyny, polyandry, group marriage, and line marriage in his works.

How polygamists find more spouses

Those who live in their own communities tend to find their additional spouses from within their own communities or networks of like-communities. Those who are geographically separated from other polygamists in their culture use other means to find additional spouses. Some polygamists from all groups use the Internet to find additional spouses.

Mormon fundamentalists - aggregate in communities

So-called Mormon fundamentalists (who are not associated with the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints) continue to practice polygamy today, more than 100 years after the LDS Church discontinued the practice. These fundamentalists practice polygamy by tending to aggregate in communities where they all commonly share their own specific religious basis for polygamy. Notable polygamous communities (with over 500 residents) are:

• Bountiful, British Columbia
• Centennial Park, Arizona
• Colorado City, Arizona
• Hilldale, Utah
• Ozumba, Mexico
• Pinesdale, Montana
• Rocky Ridge, Utah

Muslims & traditionalist cultures

Polygamy, and laws concerning polygamy, differ greatly throughout the Islamic world and form a very complex and diverse background from nation to nation. Whereas in some Muslim countries it may be fairly common, in most others it is often rare or non-existent. However, there are certain core fundamentals which are found in most Muslim countries where the practice occurs. According to traditional Islamic law, a man may take up to four wives, and each of those wives must have her own property, assets, and dowry. Usually the wives have little to no contact with each other and lead separate, individual lives in their own houses, and sometimes in different cities, though they all share the same husband. Thus, polygamy is traditionally restricted to wealthy men, and in some countries it is illegal for a man to marry multiple wives if he is unable to afford to take care of each of them properly.

In the modern Islamic world, polygamy is mainly found in traditionalist Arab cultures, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates for instance, whereas in secular Arab states like Lebanon and non-Arab Muslim countries, Turkey and Malaysia for example, it is either extremely rare or even banned outright. In traditionalist cultures where polygamy is still commonplace and legal, Muslim polygamists do not separate themselves from the society at large, since there would be no need as each spouse leads a separate life from the others.

On the Internet - polygamy personals

When it comes to seeking polygamous family situations via the internet, the options are very limited.

For polyandrists, there are no web-sites dedicated to providing ads for single men seeking polyandry or even for polyandrous families seeking such single men. The only online opportunities for such ads would likely be found on polyamory sites such as PolyMatchMaker.com.

However, the very different kinds of relationship-seekers who would advertise on such polyamory sites involve additional issues with which most polygynists would never be interested in nor comfortable with being associated. Mormon, Muslim, and Christian polygamists are all exclusively polygyny-based, and all typically do not involve bisexual issues. Even most secular polygamists tend to be polygynists too.

A handful of polygamy web-sites have attempted to offer such "polygamy personals" for polygynists. But such sites accomplish very little because they always lack the most sought-after individuals: single women who are actually and currently interested in marrying polygynously. Only one site, 2Wives.com - Polygamy Personals, has actually ever been able to put a functioning system in place to provide such current ads of such real women.

Polygamy in fiction

A number of writers have expressed their views on polygamy by writing about a fictional world in which it is the common type of relationship. These worlds tend to be utopian or dystopian in nature. For instance, Robert A. Heinlein uses this theme in a number of novels, such as Stranger in a Strange Land.

Polygamy is practiced by the Fremen in Frank Herbert's Dune, as a means to pinpoint male infertility. It is socially accepted as long as the man provides for all wives equally.

Similarly, the Aiel society in Robert Jordan's Wheel of Time series practice a form of polygamy, in which multiple women may marry the same man (in that fictional culture, women are the ones who propose marriage).

Sheri Tepper uses an extreme portrayal of Mormon polygamy in her book, 'The Gate to Women's Country'. Set in the future, after major calamities and atomic warfare, a group of Mormons are left to develop as a community. Woman are seen as mostly sex slaves who also do the cooking and laundry. Although the likelihood of this type of situation actually arising is slim, it does bring up the consequences of polygamy taken too far in a negative way.

See also

• Polygyny
• Polyandry
• Marriage
• Polyamory
• Poly relationship

Bibliography

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• Campbell, James (August 5). "The History and Philosophy of Marriage". Re-published online at TruthBearer.org. First published in Boston. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |publishyear= ignored (help)
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External links

General

• Pro-Polygamy.com - Provides op-eds and press releases on polygamy-related current events for the secular mass media
• Anti-Polygamy.org - An pro-polygamy website that analyzes anti-polygamy rhetoric and arguments.
• Anti-Polygamy.com - A discussion forum for both sides of the anti-polygamy debate.

Christian polygamy

• Christian Polygamy Info - Presents definitions and the history of the new, modern social movement which has no connection to Mormon polygamy.
• TruthBearer.org -- Organization for Christian polygamy Provides activists with teachings, resources, support, and media interviews
• Biblical Polygamy - Presents biblical exegesis of arguments to support polygamy and lists out all the polygamists in the Bible
• A defence of Christian polygamy - discusses and answers objections many Christians have to polygamy with cited evidence in the Bible
• Another defense of Christian polygamy

Mormon polygamy

• MormonPolygamy.com - A group of Mormon women in Utah called "Principle Voices of Polygamy" who advocate and defend consensual, adult Mormon polygamy
• Hope for the Child Brides - non-profit organization in St. George, Utah, that offers assistance to any victims of abuse who live in specific Mormon polygamous communities where underage marriage occurs
• Tapestry Against Polygamy A group of ex-fundamentalist Mormon polygamous wives in Salt Lake City, Utah, who offer insight and assistance for anyone seeking to leave specific Mormon polygamous communities
• Mormon Polygamy - A study of the four major periods of Mormon Polygamy

Muslim polygamy

• When is polygamy allowed in Islam? - from a Muslim point of view

Jewish polygamy

• Jewish Polygamy

• Crimes
• Marriage
• Religion and politics
• Sexual fidelity