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Transcendental Meditation is a specific form of mantra meditation; the term also refers to the spiritual movement that teaches it. They were introduced in India in 1955 by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi (1917–2008). The meditation practice involves the use of a sound or mantra and is practiced for 15–20 minutes twice per day, while sitting comfortably with closed eyes.

In 1957, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi began a series of world tours, during which he introduced and taught his meditation technique. He founded the International Meditation Society in 1959 and began to train teachers of the technique two years later. From the late 1960s through the mid 1970s, both the Maharishi and TM received significant public attention in the USA, especially among the student population. During this period, a million people learned the technique, including well-known public figures. In the mid-1970s, the Transcendental Meditation program was expanded to include an "advanced form", the TM-Sidhi program. The TM movement said the advanced techniques could give practitioners super-normal powers, including levitation, that could generate a peace-inducing field. By 1998, the global TM organization had 1,000 teaching centers and owned property assets valued at $3.5 billion. At his death, the Maharishi was estimated to have four million disciples.

The TM technique came out of and is based on Indian philosophy and the teachings of Krishna, the Buddha, and Shankara, as well as Patanjali's Yoga Sutras. The Maharishi then developed the Science of Creative Intelligence (SCI), a system of theoretical principles to underlie this meditation technique. James Randi, author and skeptic, says SCI has "no scientific characteristics", while astronomer Carl Sagan writes that the 'Hindu doctrine' of TM is a pseudoscience. Transcendental Meditation was held to be a religion by three different United States courts in two separate cases: Malnak v. Yogi in 1977 and 1979 pertaining to teaching SCI/TM in New Jersey schools, and in Hendel v. World Plan Executive Council in 1996. In recent years, TM has again been taught in schools.

In the 1950s, the Transcendental Meditation movement (TMM) had presented itself as a religious organization. By the 1970s the organization had shifted to a more scientific presentation, however continues to maintain many religious elements. This shift has been described by both those within and outside the movement as an attempt to appeal to the more secular west. TM has been reported to be one of the most widely practiced, and among the most widely researched meditation techniques.

Independently done systematic reviews have not found health benefits for TM beyond relaxation or health education. It is difficult to determine definitive effects of "meditation practices in healthcare" as the quality of research has design limitations and a lack of methodological rigor. Part of this difficulty is due to the fact that many studies on TM appear to have been conducted by devotees or researchers at universities tied to the Maharishi and on subjects with a favorable opinions of TM.

TM is taught in a standardized, seven-step course over four days by certified teachers. The fees vary from country to country. In the United States the adult fee is $1,500, while prices in the United Kingdom (UK) are based on income. Transcendental Meditation is part of the Maharishi Vedic Approach to Health and is made available worldwide by a number of organizations, sometimes collectively referred to as the Transcendental Meditation movement. Transcendental Meditation is a registered trademark of the Maharishi Foundation.

History

According to religious scholar Kenneth Boa in his book, Cults, World Religions and the Occult, the Transcendental Meditation technique is rooted in the Vedantic School of Hinduism, "repeatedly confirmed" in the Maharishi's books such as the Science of Being and the Art of Living and his Commentary on the Bhagavad Gita. Boa writes that Maharishi Mahesh Yogi "makes it clear" that Transcendental Meditation was delivered to man about 5,000 years ago by the Hindu god Krishna. The technique was then lost, but restored for a time by Buddha. It was lost again, but rediscovered in the 9th century AD by the Hindu philosopher Shankara. Finally, it was revived by Brahmananda Saraswati (Guru Dev) and passed on to the Maharishi.

George Chryssides similarly states that the Maharishi and Guru Dev were from the Shankara tradition of advaita Vedanta. Peter Russell in The TM Technique says that the Maharishi believed that from the time of the Vedas, this knowledge cycled from lost to found multiple times, as is described in the introduction of the Maharishi's commentaries on the Bhagavad-Gita. Revival of the knowledge recurred principally in the Bhagavad-Gita, and in the teachings of Buddha and Shankara. Chryssides notes that, in addition to the revivals of the Transcendental Meditaton technique by Krishna, the Buddha and Shankara, the Maharishi also drew from the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.Bromley also says the technique is based on Indian philosophy and the teachings of Krishna, the Buddha, and Shankara. Vimal Patel writes that the Maharishi drew from Patanjali when developing the TM technique.

While the Transcendental Meditation technique was originally presented in religious terms during the 1950s, this changed to an emphasis on scientific verification in the 1970s. This change has been attributed to an effort to improve its public relations, and as an attempt to enable the TM technique to be taught in public schools.

Movement

The Transcendental meditation movement came out of the Spiritual Regeneration Movement (SRM) founded by the Maharishi in 1958. The SRM was incorporated as a religious organization, however, this wording was removed from the articles of incorporation in the 1970s in an effort to appeal to a more secular west.

The Transcendental Meditation movement encompasses initiatives by Marishi Mahesh Yogi spanning multiple fields and across several continents. Sociologist J.R. Coplin says that TM is both a "private technique" and a "public ideology".

The terms "Transcendental Meditation", "TM", and "Science of Creative Intelligence" are servicemarks owned by Maharishi Foundation Ltd., a UK non-profit organization. These servicemarks have been sub-licensed to the Maharishi Vedic Education Development Corporation (MVED), an American non-profit, tax exempt organization which oversees teaching the Transcendental Meditation technique and related courses in the U.S.A.

Two entities, the Maharishi School of Vedic Sciences-Minnesota (as a successor to the World Plan Executive Council) in 1997 and the Maharishi Spiritual Center in 2001, were denied property tax exemptions as the educational activities of the organizations did not did not reach the ‘purely public charity’ threshold in one case, and did not involve the entire real estate in the other.

Transcendental Meditation is taught in the United Kingdom by the Maharishi Foundation, a registered educational charity (number 270157). TM is taught in South Africa by teachers registered with Maharishi Vedic Institute — a non-profit organisation, registration number 025-663-NPO. In Australia TM is taught through the Maharishi's Global Administration through Natural Law Limited, which is registered as a non-profit educational institution.

The Skeptics Dictionary refers to TM as a "spiritual business". Edzard Ernst and Simon Singh note in their book Trick or Treatment that TM is part of a larger system of beliefs than other types of meditation, with strong religious associations.

In 1992, a political party, the Natural Law Party (NLP) was founded based on the principles of TM. Most of the party was disbanded by 2004.NLP ran candidates in at least ten countries, including the United States, Canada, UK, several European countries, Israel and India, but rarely received more than a few percent of the vote. Candidates in Croatia and India did win seats for regional councils.

Technique

During the initial, personal instruction session, the student is given a specific sound or mantra along with the technique of how to use the mantra. The sound is utilized as a thought in the meditation process, and as a vehicle that allows the individual's attention to travel naturally to a less active, quieter style of mental functioning.

Mantras are selected to suit the individual. Scholars say that the original mantras derive from the Vedic or Tantric tradition. The Maharishi is said to have reduced the number of mantras used from hundreds down to a minimum number. TM teachers are trained to choose the correct mantras for their students. Students are told to never share their mantras with anyone. Some reports say that the total number of mantras used is, and that they are assigned using a simple formula based on gender and age. The mantras are generally considered to be sounds without meaning, though some have claimed that they refer to deities.

The Transcendental Meditation technique is taught in a standardized, seven-step course that consists of two introductory lectures, a personal interview, and four, two-hour, instruction sessions given on consecutive days. The initial personal instruction session begins with a short puja ceremony performed by the teacher, after which the student is taught the technique. Following initiation, the student practices the technique twice a day. Subsequent group sessions with the teacher ensure correct practice. Step five verifies the correctness of the practice and give further instruction; step six teaches the mechanics of the TM technique based on his/her personal experiences; and, step seven explains the higher stages of human development per this system of meditation.

The technique is practiced morning and evening for 15–20 minutes each time, but is not recommended before bed. According to Russell and the official TM web site, the Transcendental Meditation technique can be learned only from a certified, authorized teacher.

The fee charged for instruction has varied over time. In the 1960s, the usual fee was one-week's salary or $35 for a student. In the 1970s it became a fixed fee of $125 with discounts for students and families. By 2003 it was set at $2500. It has since been reduced to $1500.

"Rounding" is a combination of yogic breathing techniques and meditation repeated for a prolonged period in a supervised setting. There are other "advanced techniques" that build on the basic TM technique. Using TM-Sidhi, the most prominent of these, practitioners said to achieve "Yogic Flying".

Maharishi Effect

Maharishi Mahesh Yogi predicted that the quality of life for an entire population would be noticeably improved if one percent of the population practiced the Transcendental Meditation technique. This is known as the "Maharishi Effect". With the introduction of the TM-Sidhi program including Yogic Flying, the Maharishi proposed that only the square root of 1% of the population practicing this advanced program would be required to create benefits in society, and this was referred to as the "Extended Maharishi Effect", according to a MUM webage.

Practice of the TM and TM-Sidhi programs has been credited by the TM organization with the fall of the Berlin Wall, a reduction in global terrorism, a decrease in the rate of inflation in the US, the lowering of crime rates, and other positive effects. The Maharishi Effect has been endorsed by the former President of Mozambique Joaquim Chissano, who applied this technology in his country, and positive results have been reported in 42 independent scientific studies. Some have described this research as "pseudoscience". James Randi followed up on some of the claims attributed to the Maharishi Effect that Maharishi International University of faculty member Robert Rabinoff made at a talk in Oregon in 1978 attended by Ray Hyman. Randi spoke to the Fairfield Chief of Police who had not experienced any drop in crime rate and the regional Agriculture Department whose statistics on yield showed no difference between Jefferson County and the state average.

According to a follower, the Maharishi said that "the earth yields up its treasures" when the one percent threshold is met.

Maharishi Vedic approach to health

Transcendental Meditation is part of the Maharishi Vedic Approach to Health (MVAH). MVAH (also known as Maharishi Ayurveda and Maharishi Vedic Medicine) was founded in the mid 1980s by the Maharishi. MVAH is considered an alternative medicine and aims at being a complementary system to modern western medicine. It is based on Ayurveda, a system of traditional medicine developed in India in ancient times.

Views on human development

According to Vimal Patel, a pathologist at Indiana University, TM has been shown to produce states that are physiologically different from waking, dreaming and sleeping. Maharishi Mahesh Yogi says in his 1963 book, The Science Of Being and Art Of Living, that, over time, the practice of allowing the mind to experience its deeper levels during the Transcendental Meditation technique brings these levels from the subconscious to within the capacity of the conscious mind. According to the Maharishi, as the mind quiets down and experiences finer thoughts, the Transcendental Meditation practitioner can become aware that thought itself is transcended and can have the experience of what he calls the 'source of thought', 'pure awareness' or 'transcendental Being'; 'the ultimate reality of life'. TM has been described by the movement as a technology of consciousness.

Girish Varma, a Brahmachari who heads the Maharishi Vidya Mandir school system and is a nephew of the Maharishi, says that scientific studies have shown that practitioners can achieve divine powers through TM.

Seven States of Consciousness

According to the Maharishi there are seven levels of consciousness: (i) waking; (ii) dreaming; (iii) deep sleep; (iv) Transcendental or Pure Consciousness; (v) Cosmic Consciousness (Skt: turiyatita); (vi) God Consciousness (Skt: bhagavat-chetana); and (vii) Supreme knowledge, or unity consciousness (Skt: brahmi-chetana). The Maharishi says that the fourth level of consciousness (Skt: turiya) can be experienced through Transcendental Meditation, and that the fifth state can be achieved by those who meditate diligently. The Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness says that it may be premature to say that the EEG coherence found in TM is an indication of a higher state of consciousness. A sign of cosmic consciousness is "ever present wakefulness" that is present even during sleep. Research on individuals experiencing cosmic consciousness as a result of practice of TM has found EEG profiles, muscle tone measurements, and REM indicators that suggest there is physiological evidence of this higher state.

Characterizations

Self characterizations

Maharishi Mahesh Yogi describes Transcendental Meditation as a technique which requires no preparation, is simple to do, and can be learned by anyone. The technique is described as being effortless and natural, involving neither contemplation nor concentration, and relying on the natural tendency of the mind to move in the direction of greater satisfaction.

In his book The TM Technique, Peter Russell, a teacher of Transcendental Meditation who had spent time with Maharishi Mahesh Yogi says, Transcendental Meditation allows the mind to become still without effort, in contrast to meditation practices that attempt to control the mind by holding it on a single thought or by keeping it empty of all thoughts. He says trying to control the mind is like trying to go to sleep at night — if a person makes an effort to fall asleep, his or her mind remains active and restless. This is why, he says, Transcendental Meditation avoids concentration and effort.

According to Wayne Teasdale's book The Mystic Heart: Discovering a Universal Spirituality in the World’s Religions, Transcendental Meditation is what is called an open or receptive method that can be described as giving up control and remaining open in an inner sense.

Anthony Campbell says that because TM is a natural process, its practice requires no "special circumstances or preparations". Campbell writes that Transcendental Meditation is "complete in itself" and does "not depend upon belief" or require the practitioner to accept any theory.

Government

Transcendental Meditation and some of it associated organizations have been described as a religion or a cult. For example, three US courts have held it to be a religion in two cases: Malnak v Yogi (1977 and 1979) and Hendel v World Plan Executive Council (1996). In addition to the 3rd Circuit opinion in Malnak holding that Transcendental Meditation and the Science of Creative Intellingence were religious under the Establishment Clause, in 1996, the Superior Court for the District of Columbia ruled in Hendel v World Plan Executive Council that the practice of Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi Program were a religion and that trial of the fraud and other claims for damages by a former TM and TM-Sidhi practitioner against the World Plan Executive Council and Maharishi International University would involve the Court in excessive entanglement into matters of religious belief contrary to the First Amendment.

A 1980 report by the West German government's Institute for Youth and Society characterized TM as a "psychogroup". The TM organization sued unsuccessfully to block the release of the report. The 1995 report of the Parliamentary Commission on Cults in France listed Transcendental Meditation as a cult. The state of Israel has condemned TM, commonly agreed by anti-cult groups there to be a cult.

Religion

Cardinal Jaime Sin, the Archbishop of Manila, wrote a pastoral statement in 1984 after Philippines President Ferdinand Marcos invited more than 1,000 members of the movement to Manila to reduce dissent through Yogic Flying. Sin said that neither the doctrine nor the practice of TM are acceptable to Christians. In 2003, the Roman Curia, a Vatican council, published a warning against mixing eastern meditation, such as TM, with Christian prayer. Other clergy, including Catholic clergy, have found the Transcendental Meditation to be compatible with their religious teachings and beliefs. Religion scholar Charles H. Lippy writes that earlier spiritual interest in the technique faded in the 1970s and it became a practical technique that anyone could employ without abandoning their religious affiliation. Bainbridge found Transcendental Meditation to be a "...highly simplified form of Hinduism, adapted for Westerners who did not possess the cultural background to accept the full panoply of Hindu beliefs, symbols, and practices", and describes the Transcendental Meditation puja ceremony as "...in essence, a religious initiation ceremony". Metropolitan Maximos of Pittsburgh of the Greek Orthodox Church describes TM as being "a new version of Hindu Yoga" based on "pagan pseudo-worship and deification of a common mortal, Guru Dev".

William Johnston, an Irish Jesuit, says that despite its religious origins the TM technique as introduced by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi has no attachments to any particular religion. Former Maharishi University of Management Dean of College of Arts and Sciences, James Grant writes that the Maharishi's techniques for the development of consciousness are non-sectarian and require no belief system. The official TM web site says it is a non-religious mental technique for deep rest. The Maharishi refers to the technique as "a path to God". Andrew Sullivan, political commentator for The Atlantic and an openly gay Roman Catholic, wrote in 2010 that he does not consider his practice of Transcendental Meditation to be a "contradiction of my faith in Christ". Martin Gardner, a mathematician, refers to it as "the Hindu cult".

Douglas Cowan, a Professor of Sociology and Religious Studies, covers Transcendental Meditation in Cults and New Religions along with Scientology, Family Federation for World Peace and Unification (FFWPU), The Children of God, Branch Davidian, Heaven’s Gate, and Wicca. Transcendental meditation has been accused of "surreptitiously smuggling in forms of Eastern religion under the guise of some seemingly innocuous form of health promotion".

School programs

For schools belonging to the Transcendental Meditation movement, see Educational institutions

TM in public schools in 1970s : Malnak v. Yogi

As of 1974, 14 states encouraged local schools to teach TM in the classroom, and it was taught at 50 universities. Among the public school systems where TM was taught were Shawnee Mission, Kansas, Maplewood, Paterson, Union Hill and West New York, New Jersey, Eastchester, New York and North York, Ontario.

In 1979, the Third Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed the 1977 decision of the US District Court of New Jersey that a course in Transcendental Meditation and the Science of Creative Intelligence (SCI) was religious activity within the meaning of the Establishment Clause and that the teaching of SCI/TM in the New Jersey public high schools was prohibited by the First Amendment. The court ruled that, although SCI/TM is not a theistic religion, it deals with issues of ultimate concern, truth, and other ideas analogous to those in well-recognized religions. The court found that the religious nature of the course was clear from careful examination of the textbook, the expert testimony elicited, and the uncontested facts concerning the puja ceremony, which it found involved "offerings to deities as part of a regularly scheduled course in the schools' educational programs". State action was involved because the SCI/TM course and activities involved the teaching of a religion, without an objective secular purpose.

The Malnak decision resulted in the dismantling of the Maharishi's programs to establish Transcendental Meditation in the public schools with governmental funding.

1990s–present : Charter School and "Quiet Time" programs

In recent years, TM is being used in schools, with some governmental sponsorship. A number of public charter schools began introducing Transcendental Meditation programs beginning in the 1990s. These include:

• Fletcher Johnson Educational Center (1994) in Washington, D.C.

• The Ideal Academy Public Charter School (1996) with the approval of the Washington, D.C. Board of Education. The 2005-2006 pilot project at Ideal Academy was conducted along with research to document the effects of the program.

• The Nataki Talibah Schoolhouse in Detroit (1996). The program was featured on the Today Show in 2003. The school has since been classified by the Skillman Foundation as a "High-Performing Middle School". Over the years, the program at Nitaki Talibah has been funded by various foundations including General Motors, Daimler Chrysler, the Liebler Foundation and more recently, the David Lynch Foundation.

Since 2005, the David Lynch Foundation has promoted and provided funding for the teaching of TM in schools. It subsidizes the cost for training a student in TM, which was $650 per year as of 2004 in the US. In 2006, six public schools were each awarded $25,000 by the David Lynch Foundation to begin a TM program. By 2006, twenty five public, private, and charter schools in the United States had offered Transcendental Meditation to their students. The Lowel Whiteman Primary School in Steamboat Springs, Colorado began using Transcendental Meditation in their school in 2008.

Efforts to re-introduce Transcendental Meditation into public schools have resulted in increased tensions because it is viewed by some parents and critics as an overstepping of boundaries. Some parents have opposed these efforts based on concerns that it may lead to "lifelong personal and financial servitude to a corporation run by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi". In 2006, the Terra Linda High School in San Rafael, California canceled plans for Transcendental Meditation classes due to concerns of parents that it would be promoting religion.

According to a 2008 Newsweek article, critics believe that Transcendental Meditation is a repackaged, Eastern, religious philosophy that should not be used in public schools. Advocates say that Transcendental Meditation is purely a mechanical, physiological process. University of South Carolina sociologist Barry Markovsky describes teaching the Transcendental Meditation technique in schools as "stealth religion". According to Barry Lynn, executive director of Americans United for Separation of Church and State, Transcendental Meditation is rooted in Hinduism and, when introduced into public schools, it crosses the same constitutional line as in the Malnak case and decision of 1979. In May 2008, Lynn said that the Americans United for Separation of Church and State is keeping a close legal eye on the TM movement and that there are no imminent cases against them. Brad Dacus of the Pacific Justice Institute says doing Transcendental Meditation during a school's "quiet time" (a short period many schools have adopted that children use for prayer or relaxation) is constitutional.

According to the TM movement's school in South Africa, Consciousness-Based Education has also been introduced in the Netherlands, Australia, India, Ecuador, Thailand, China, and Great Britain.

Corporate programs

Transcendental Meditation has been utilized in corporations both in the U.S.A and in India. As of 2001, companies such as General Motors helped their salaried employees pay for TM; IBM reimbursed half the TM course fee for its US employees.

The Washington Post reported in 2005 that The Tower Companies, "one of Washington D.C.'s largest real estate development companies", has added classes in Transcendental Meditation to their employee benefit program in order "to contain stress-related ailments and health care costs". Seventy percent (70%) of the employees at The Tower Companies participate in the program.

A number of Indian companies give their managers training in Transcendental Meditation to reduce stress. These companies include: AirTel, Siemens, American Express, SRF and Wipro, Hero Honda, Ranbaxy, Hewlett Packard, BHEL, BPL, ESPN-Star Sports, Tisco, Eveready, Maruti, and Godrej. All employees at Marico practice Transcendental Meditation in groups as part of their standard workday. According to the Times of India, this practice benefits both employees and employers.

References

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20. Benson, Herbert; Klipper, Miriam Z. (2001). The relaxation response. New York, NY: Quill. p. 61. ISBN 978-0-380-81595-1.
21. Sinatra, Stephen T.; Roberts, James C.; Zucker, Martin (2007-12-20). Reverse Heart Disease Now: Stop Deadly Cardiovascular Plaque Before It's Too Late. Wiley. p. 192. ISBN 978-0-470-22878-4.
22. Travis, Frederick; Chawkin, Ken (Sept-Oct, 2003). New Life magazine. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
23. Ospina MB, Bond TK, Karkhaneh M, Tjosvold L, Vandermeer B, Liang Y, Bialy L, Hooton N, Buscemi N, Dryden DM, Klassen TP. (June 2007). Meditation Practices for Health: State of the Research (PDF). Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. p. 4. A few studies of overall poor methodological quality were available for each comparison in the meta-analyses, most of which reported nonsignificant results. TM® had no advantage over health education to improve measures of systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure, body weight, heart rate, stress, anger, self-efficacy, cholesterol, dietary intake, and level of physical activity in hypertensive patients{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
24. Krisanaprakornkit T, Ngamjarus C, Witoonchart C, Piyavhatkul N (2010). "Meditation therapies for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)". Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 6: CD006507. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006507.pub2. PMID 20556767. As a result of the limited number of included studies, the small sample sizes and the high risk of bias, we are unable to draw any conclusions regarding the effectiveness of meditation therapy for ADHD.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
25. ^ Krisanaprakornkit T, Krisanaprakornkit W, Piyavhatkul N, Laopaiboon M (2006). "Meditation therapy for anxiety disorders". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (1): CD004998. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004998.pub2. PMID 16437509. The small number of studies included in this review do not permit any conclusions to be drawn on the effectiveness of meditation therapy for anxiety disorders. Transcendental meditation is comparable with other kinds of relaxation therapies in reducing anxiety {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
26. Ospina MB, Bond K, Karkhaneh M; et al. (2007). "Meditation practices for health: state of the research". Evid Rep Technol Assess (Full Rep) (155): 4. PMID 17764203. A few studies of overall poor methodological quality were available for each comparison in the meta-analyses, most of which reported nonsignificant results. TM® had no advantage over health education to improve measures of systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure, body weight, heart rate, stress, anger, self-efficacy, cholesterol, dietary intake {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help); More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
27. Ospina MB, Bond K, Karkhaneh M; et al. (2007). "Meditation practices for health: state of the research". Evid Rep Technol Assess (Full Rep) (155): 1–263. PMID 17764203. Scientific research on meditation practices does not appear to have a common theoretical perspective and is characterized by poor methodological quality. Firm conclusions on the effects of meditation practices in healthcare cannot be drawn based on the available evidence. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
28. Krisanaprakornkit T, Ngamjarus C, Witoonchart C, Piyavhatkul N (2010). "Meditation therapies for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)". Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 6: CD006507. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006507.pub2. PMID 20556767. As a result of the limited number of included studies, the small sample sizes and the high risk of bias{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
29. Canter PH, Ernst E (2004). "Insufficient evidence to conclude whether or not Transcendental Meditation decreases blood pressure: results of a systematic review of randomized clinical trials". Journal of Hypertension. 22 (11): 2049–54. PMID 15480084. All the randomized clinical trials of TM for the control of blood pressure published to date have important methodological weaknesses and are potentially biased by the affiliation of authors to the TM organization. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
30. Canter PH, Ernst E (2003). "The cumulative effects of Transcendental Meditation on cognitive function--a systematic review of randomised controlled trials". Wien. Klin. Wochenschr. 115 (21–22): 758–66. doi:10.1007/BF03040500. PMID 14743579. All 4 positive trials recruited subjects from among people favourably predisposed towards TM, and used passive control procedures … The association observed between positive outcome, subject selection procedure and control procedure suggests that the large positive effects reported in 4 trials result from an expectation effect. The claim that TM has a specific and cumulative effect on cognitive function is not supported by the evidence from randomized controlled trials. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
31. ^ John Briganti, testimony to the White House Commission On Complementary And Alternative Medicine Policy, October 31, 2000.
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37. ^ Patel, Vimal (1998). "Understanding the Integration of Alternative Modalities into an Emerging Healthcare Model in the United States". in Humber, James M.; Almeder, Robert F.. Alternative medicine and ethics. Humana Press. pp. 55-56. ISBN 0-89603-440-2, 9780896034402.
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54. Roach, Mary, "The last tourist in Mozambique", Salon (December 1, 2000)
55. deFiebre, Conrad (October 7, 1994). "Meditation touted as crime-fighter // Study presented builds the case for 'Maharishi effect'". Star Tribune. Minneapolis, Minn. p. 03.B.
56. CALAMAI, PETER (October 9, 2004). "Stop the bleeping pseudoscience; Quantum physics film drowns in its own bunk science High point in What The Bleep is stunning animation sequence". Toronto Star. p. J.13.
57. Randi, James (1982). Flim-flam!: psychics, ESP, unicorns, and other delusions. Buffalo, N.Y: Prometheus Books. p. 100. ISBN 0-87975-198-3.
58. Coleman, Kevin (August 18, 2005). "'Peace Palace' planned". Knight Ridder Tribune Business News. Washington. p. 1.
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65. King, Larry (May 12, 2002). "Interview with Larry King". CNN.
66. ^ Hunt, Stephen (2003). Alternative religions: a sociological introduction. Aldershot, Hampshire, England ; Burlington, VT: Ashgate. pp. 197–198. ISBN 978-0-7546-3410-2.
67. "Develop virtue of Satoguni chetna:Brahmachari Dr.Girishji". Maha Media. March 16, 2010. Retrieved July 17, 2010.
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71. Mahesh Yogi, Maharishi (1995) The Science of Being and Art of Living. New York, Meridian.
72. ABC7, Research Summary: ADHD Meditation, May 23, 2006, "William Stixrud, Ph.D., a clinical neuropsychologist, says:TM is a mental technique that involves simply narrowing the focus of the mind in a very effortless way that allows the mind to settle down."
73. Shear, J. (Jonathan) (2006). The experience of meditation : experts introduce the major tradition. St. Paul, MN: Paragon House. pp. 23, 30–32, 43–44. ISBN 978-1-55778-857-3.
74. Travis F, Haaga DA, Hagelin JS, Tanner M, Nidich S, Gaylord-King C et al. Effects of Transcendental Meditation practice on brain functioning and stress reactivity in college students. International Journal of Psychophysiology 2009 71(2):170-176
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76. Teasdale, Wayne; Bruteau, Beatrice (2001-04-01). The Mystic Heart: Discovering a Universal Spirituality in the World's Religions. New World Library. pp. 137–139. ISBN 978-1-57731-140-9.
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82. "October 16, 1984 - The Basic Conflict Between Maharishi and Christianity". Rcam.org. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
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Bibliography

• Ospina MB, Bond TK, Karkhaneh M, Tjosvold L, Vandermeer B, Liang Y, Bialy L, Hooton N, Buscemi N, Dryden DM, Klassen TP. (June 2007). Meditation Practices for Health: State of the Research (PDF). Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
• Ospina MB, Bond K, Karkhaneh M; et al. (2007). "Meditation practices for health: state of the research". Evid Rep Technol Assess (Full Rep) (155): 1–263. PMID 17764203. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

Further reading

• Denniston, Denise, The TM Book, Fairfield Press, Fairfield, Iowa, 1986 ISBN 0-931783-02-X
• Geoff Gilpin, The Maharishi Effect: A Personal Journey Through the Movement That Transformed American Spirituality, Tarcher-Penguin 2006, ISBN 1-58542-507-9
• Kropinski v. World Plan Executive Council, 853 F, 2d 948, 956 (D.C. Cir, 1988)
• Maharishi Mahesh Yogi on the Bhagavad-Gita : A New Translation and Commentary, Chapters 1-6. ISBN 0-14-019247-6.
• Maharishi Mahesh Yogi: Science of Being and Art of Living : Transcendental Meditation ISBN 0-452-28266-7.
• Mason, Paul (2005). "Maharishi Mahesh Yogi: The Biography of the Man Who Gave Transcendental Meditation to the World" (Document). Evolution Publishing. pp. 335 pages. ISBN 0-9550361-0-0. {{cite document}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |chapter= and |editor= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |others= ignored (help)
• Persinger, Michael (1980). TM and Cult Mania. Language: English. Christopher Pub House. pp. 198 pages. ISBN 0815803923. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

External links

• Official site.

• Transcendental Meditation movement
• Meditation
• Parapsychology
• Self religions