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Fulani, Fula, Fulɓe

File:Fulbe.jpg
Total population
c. 40 Million+ Greatest concentrations in: Nigeria, Guinea, Cameroon, Senegal, Mali, Niger and Burkina Faso.
Regions with significant populations
Nigeria	18.7 million
Guinea	4.6 million
Senegal	3.2 million
Mali	2.5 million
Cameroon	2.5 million
Sudan	1.9 million
Burkina Faso	1.7 million
Niger	1.7 million
Benin	722,610
Mauritania	700,000
Ivory Coast	424,000
Gambia	349,000
Guinea Bissau	333,000
Sierra Leone	310,000
Chad	285,000
Central African Republic	265,000
Africa Other:	Millions in: Gabon, Togo, Ghana, Liberia, Egypt, Morocco, Algeria, Libya, etc.
Languages
Fula language
Religion
Islam
Related ethnic groups
Tukulor, Serer, Tuareg

Fula people or Fulani or Fulbe (Template:Lang-ff; Template:Lang-fr; Template:Lang-ha; Template:Lang-pt; Template:Lang-wo; Template:Lang-bm) are the largest migratory ethnic group in the world. They are among the "super" ethnic groups of Africa with members numbering 30 million and above, alongside the Hausa, Yoruba, and Igbo. They are an ethnic group spread over many countries, mainly in West Africa and northern parts of Central Africa, but also in the Sudan area. Overall, the territory and range of where Fulani people can be found is significantly larger than the United States and Western Europe in area. Being one of the most widely dispersed and culturally most diverse people on the African continent, Fulani culture comes in a myriad of expressions in terms of clothing, music and lifestyle. However, common to all Fulani, are their distinct physical features: - Fair skin color, Aquiline Noses, thin lips, straight or wavy hair, and their language Fulfulde, which marks them off from the mass of the sudanic people around them as well as some basic elements of Fulbe culture, such as the "'Pulaaku'". African countries where they are present include Mauritania, Ghana, Senegal, Guinea, the Gambia, Mali, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Benin, Burkina Faso, Guinea Bissau, Cameroon, Côte d'Ivoire, Niger, Chad, Togo, Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, South Sudan the Central African Republic, Liberia, and as far East as the Red Sea in Sudan (Which they reached at the beginning of the 19th Century) and Egypt. Fula people form a minority in every country they inhabit, except in Guinea where they are the largest ethnic group, representing some 40% of the population

Major concentrations of Fulani people exist in the Fouta Djallon highlands of central Guinea and south into the northernmost reaches of Sierra Leone; the Futa Tooro savannah grasslands of Senegal and southern Mauritania; the Macina inland Niger river delta system around Central Mali; and especially in the regions around Mopti and the Nioro Du Sahel in the Kayes region; the Borgu settlements of Benin, Togo and West-Central Nigeria; and the areas occupied by the Sokoto Caliphate, which includes what is now Southern Niger and Northern Nigeria (such as Tahoua, Katsina, Sokoto, Kebbi, Zinder, Bauchi, Diffa,Yobe, Gombe, and further east, into the Benue river valley systems of North Eastern Nigeria and Northern Cameroon). This is the area known as the Fombina literally meaning "The South" in Adamawa Fulfulde, because it represented the most southern and eastern reaches of Fulbe hegemonic dominance in West Africa. In this area, Fulfulde is the local lingua franca, and language of cross cultural communication. Further east of this area, Fulani communities become predominantly nomadic, and exist at less organized social systems. These are the areas of the Chari-Baguirmi Region and its river systems, in Chad and the Central African Republic, the Ouaddaï highlands of Eastern Chad, the areas around Kordofan, Darfur and the Blue Nile, Sennar, Kassala regions of Sudan, as well as the Red Sea coastal city of Port Sudan. The Fulani on their way to or back from the pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, settled in many parts of eastern Sudan, today representing a distinct community of over 2 million people referred to as the Fellata.

Terminology

There are also many names (and spellings of the names) used in other languages to refer to the Fulɓe. Fulani in English is borrowed from the Hausa term. Fula, from Manding languages, is also used in English, and sometimes spelled Fulah or Fula. Fula and Fulani are commonly used in English, including within Africa. The French borrowed the Wolof term Pël, which is variously spelled: Peul, Peulh, and even Peuhl. More recently the Fulfulde / Pulaar term Fulɓe, which is a plural noun (singular, Pullo) has been Anglicised as Fulbe, which some people use. In Portuguese, the terms Fula or Futafula are used. The terms Fallata Fallatah or Fellata are of Kanuri origins, and is often the name by which Fulani people are identified by in Sudan.

Related groups

Fula society in some parts of West Africa features the "caste" divisions typical of the region. In Mali and Senegal for instance, those who are not ethnically Fula have been referred to as yimɓe pulaaku (people of the Fula culture). This caste system however, is not followed in places like northern Nigeria or Cameroon, where in many cases the Fulani and Hausa have intermixed and taken some influences from each other's cultures. (See Hausa-Fulani.) This phenomenon is not seen outside the eastern subregion of West Africa, and in other parts of the region, cultures between the Fulani and other groups are kept largely distinct.

One closely related group is the Tukolor (Toucouleur) in the central Senegal River valley, who had a strong kingdom paying a negotiated tribute to the Fula. Large numbers of other Fula-speakers live scattered in the region and have a lower status. They are descendants of Fula-owned slaves. Now legally emancipated, in some regions they still pay tribute to Fula elites, and they are often denied chances for upward social mobility. In-between groups are the Fula-speaking fishermen and handcraftsmen. These groups are often collectively referred to (together with Fulɓe of the region) as Haalpulaar (Template:Lang-ff, literally "Pulaar-speakers"). The Wodaabe (Template:Lang-ff), are a subgroup of the Fula people.

Another related people group are the Wasulu People, who are partly ethnic Fulani living in areas of West Africa that constitutes parts of Côte d'Ivoire, Guinea and Mali. They live in a region that expands from the southwest corner of Mali, to the northwest corner of Côte d'Ivoire, and the northeast part of Guinea. The Wasulu settled among the Maninka (in the northeastern corner of Guinea and the southwestern corner of Mali). It is believed that they settled in Yanfolila and the surrounding areas between the 11th and 14th centuries AD. They are then held to have adopted the language and culture of the surrounding Maninka and Bambara. The Wasulu now speak the Bambara language with a mixture of Malinké which is called Wasalunkan. Many of the Wasulu are farmers, with cotton being their main crop. Islam was introduced to the group in the late 1800s. Like their Fulani brethren, the Wasulu are today almost 100% Muslim. The internationally renowned Malian singer Oumou Sangare is originally from the Wasulu group of Mali.

Traditional livelihood

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The Fulani are traditionally a nomadic, pastoralist, trading people, herding cattle, goats and sheep across the vast dry hinterlands of their domain, keeping somewhat separate from the local agricultural populations. They are the largest nomadic ethnic group in the world, spreading over several territories, larger than the continental United States in size. The Fulani follow a code of behavior known as Pulaaku, consisting of the qualities of patience, self-control, discipline, prudence, modesty, respect for others (including foes), wisdom, forethought, personal responsibility, hospitality, courage, and hard work.

Genetics

Y-DNA (Paternal)

The paternal lineages of the Fula/Fulbe/Fulani tend to vary depending on geographic location. According to a study by Cruciani et al. (2002), around 90% of Fulani individuals from Burkina Faso carried haplotype 24, which corresponds with the common Sub-Saharan haplogroup E1b1a. The remainder belonged to haplotype 42/haplogroup E-M33. Both of these clades are today most frequent among Niger-Congo-speaking populations, particularly those inhabiting Senegal. Similarly, 53% of the Fulani in northern Cameroon bore haplogroup E-M33, with the rest mainly carrying other Sub-Saharan clades (12% haplogroup A and 6% haplogroup E1b1a). A minority carried the West Eurasian haplogroups T (18%) and R-M173 (12%). Mulcare et al. (2004) observed a similar frequency of haplogroup R1 subclades in their Fulani samples from Cameroon (18%).

A study by Hassan et al. (2008) on the Fulani in Sudan observed a significantly higher occurrence of the West Eurasian haplogroup R-M173 (53.8%). The remainder belonged to various Afro-Asiatic associated haplogroup E1b1b subclades, including 34.62% E-M78 and 27.2% E-V22.

Bučková et al. (2013) similarly observed significant frequencies of the haplogroups R1b and E1b1b in their pastoralist Fulani groups from Niger. E1b1b attained its highest frequencies among the local Fulani Ader (60%) and R1b among the Fulani Zinder (~31%). This was in sharp contrast to most of the other Fulani pastoralist groups elsewhere, including those from Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Mali and Chad. All of these latter Fulani communities instead bore over 75% Sub-Saharan paternal haplogroups.

MtDNA (Maternal)

In contrast to their heterogeneous paternal lineages, the Fulani largely cluster maternally with other Niger-Congo populations. Only 8.1% of their mtDNA clades were associated with West Eurasian or Afro-Asiatic groups (J1b, U5, H, and V):

"Despite the large size of the contemporary nomadic Fulani population (roughly 13 million people), the genetic diversity and degree of differentiation of Fulanis compared to other sub-Saharan populations remain unknown. We sampled four Fulani nomad populations (n = 186) in three countries of sub-Saharan Africa (Chad, Cameroon, and Burkina Faso) and analyzed sequences of the first hypervariable segment of the mitochondrial DNA. Most of the haplotypes belong to haplogroups of West African origin, such as L1b, L3b, L3d, L2b, L2c, and L2d (79.6% in total), which are all well represented in each of the four geographically separated samples. The haplogroups of Western Eurasian origin, such as J1b, U5, H, and V, were also detected but in rather low frequencies (8.1% in total). As in African hunter-gatherers (Pygmies and Khoisan) and some populations from central Tunisia (Kesra and Zriba), three of the Fulani nomad samples do not reveal significant negative values of Fu's selective neutrality test. The multidimensional scaling of FST genetic distances of related sub-Saharan populations and the analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) show clear and close relationships between all pairs of the four Fulani nomad samples, irrespective of their geographic origin. The only group of nomadic Fulani that manifests some similarities with geographically related agricultural populations (from Guinea-Bissau and Nigeria) comes from Tcheboua in northern Cameroon."

Autosomal DNA (Overall)

According to Tishkoff et al. (2009), the Fulani's genomic ancestry clusters near that of Chadic and Central Sudanic speaking populations. Based on this, the researchers suggest that the Fulani may have adopted a Niger-Congo language at some point in their history while intermarrying with local populations. Additionally, low to moderate levels of West Eurasian admixture was also observed in the Fulani samples, which the authors propose may have been introduced via the Iberian peninsula.

HLA antigens

According to Lulli et al. (2009), the HLA antigens of the Fulani in Burkina Faso are differentiated from those of the neighbouring Mossi and Rimaibe populations, but are very close to the Fulani from Gambia, with both "shar the distribution of specific alleles with East African populations." This "indicat the Fulani population of the two countries could be the descendants of the same group of ancestors." Researchers found, "In particular, the DRB104 allele is absent or rare in all Sub-Saharan African populations, except in the Fulani and in the Amhara-Oromo from Ethiopia where it reaches a frequency close to that of Europeans." From this, the researchers indicate "These observations are consistent with the hypothesis that the Fulani's genetic makeup includes an appreciable genetic component of possible East African origin, which has been suggested on the basis of their physical features and cultural practices."

Origins and Spread

Various theories have been postulated regarding the origins of Fulani people. The ethnogenesis of the Fulani people, however, seems to have begun as a result of interactions between an ancient West African population and a North African population in the areas around the bend of the Niger river. They are people of combined West African as well as North African origin. Originating from the area near the upper Niger and Senegal Rivers, the Fulani were cattle-keeping farmers who shared their lands with other nearby groups, like the Soninke, who contributed to the rise of ancient Ghana. During the 16th century the Fula expanded through the sahel grasslands, stretching from what is today Senegal to Sudan, with eastward and westward expansion being led by nomadic groups of cattle breeders or the Fulbe ladde. While the initial expansionist groups were small, they soon increased in size due to the availability of grazing lands in the sahel and the lands that bordered it to the immediate south. Agricultural expansions led to a division among the Fulani, where individuals were classified as belonging either to the group of expansionist nomadic agriculturalists or the group of Fulani who found it more comfortable to abandon traditional nomadic ways and settle in towns or the Fulbe Wuro. Fulani towns were a direct result of a nomadic heritage, and were often founded by individuals who simply chosen to settle in a given area instead of continue on their way. This cultural interaction most probably occurred in Senegal, where the closely linguistically related Tukulor, Serer and Wolof people predominate, ultimately leading to the ethnogenesis of the Fulani culture, language and people before subsequent expansion throughout much of West Africa.

Evidence of Fulani migration as a whole, from the Western to the Eastern Sudan is very fragmentary. Delafosse, one of the earliest enquirers into Fulani history and customs, principally relying on oral tradition, estimated that Fulani migrants left Futa Tooro, and Macina, towards the East, between the Eleventh and the Fourteenth centuries. By the Fifteenth century, there was a steady flow of Fulbe immigrants into Hausaland and later on, Bornu. Their presence in Baghirmi was later recorded when Fulani fought as allies, to Dokkenge or Birni besif, when he founded the town of Massenya (A Chadian town), early in the Sixteenth century. By the end of the Eighteenth century, Fulani settlements, were dotted all over the Benue River valley and it's tributaries, Eastwards towards Garoua and Rey Bouba, Southwards towards the Faro River, to the Foots of the Mambilla mountains, which they would later ascend in subsequent years. The heaviest concentrations of their settlements, were at Gurin, Chamba territory, Cheboa, Turua and Bundang. These so called "Benue-Fulani" reduced the frequency with which they moved fro place to place. The umber of years they stayed at one spot depended on two factors: The reaction of the earlier settlers of that locality to their presence, and how satisfactory the conditions were i.e availability of pasture for their cattle.

Settled and nomadic Fulani began to be seen as separate political entities, each group ruled by a different leader. The first leader to emerge for the nomadic Fulani in the plains between the Termes and Nioro was Tenguella Koli, who objected to the control the Songhai Empire exercised over the homelands of Ancient Ghana. Primarily objecting to the Songhai rule of Askia Muhammad, because it limited available land for grazing, Tenguella led a revolt against the empire in 1512. He was killed in battle with an army led by the brother of Askia Muhammad near Diara during the same year.

The rebellion against Songhai rule continued, however, when Tengualla's son, Tengualla Koli, led his father's warriors across the Upper Senegal River and into Badiar, a region north-west of the Futa Jallon Mountains. Once in Badiar, he was joined by many Mandinka soldiers, who had rallied to his cause and embraced him as a relative of their leader, the emperor of Mali. The combined forces of the Fulani and the Mandinka continued onward to Takrur, an ancient state in Futa Toro. There they subdued the Soninke chiefs in power and set up a new line of kings in 1559.

In Nigeria, the Fulani are often categorized with the Hausa as a conglomerated ethnic group Hausa-Fulani. Following the Fulani War, their histories in the region have been largely intertwined. Outside Nigeria, the two groups are usually considered distinct and are different as a matter of fact.

The Fulani were the first group of people in West Africa to convert to Islam through jihads, or holy wars, and were able to take over much of the Sahel region of West Africa and establish themselves not only as a religious group but also as a political and economical force.

In the 9th century they may have been involved in the formation of a state with its capital at Takrur which is suggested to have had influx of Fulani migrating from the east and settling in the Senegal valley although John Donnelly Fage suggests that Takrur was formed through the interaction of Berbers from the Sahara and "Negro agricultural peoples" who were "essentially Serer".

The earliest evidence that shed some light on the pre-historic Fulani culture can be found in the Tassili n'Ajjer rock art Fulani's artifacts, which seem to depict the early life of the people dating back thousands of years (6000 BC). Examination of these rock paintings suggests the presence of proto-Fulani cultural traits in the region by at least the 4th millennium BC. Tassili-N'Ajjer in Algeria is one of the most famous North African sites of rock painting. Scholars specializing in Fulani culture believe that some of the imagery depicts rituals that are still practiced by contemporary Fulani people. At the Tin Tazarift site, for instance, historian Amadou Hampate Ba recognized a scene of the 'lotori' ceremony, a celebration of the ox's aquatic origin. In a finger motif, Ba detected an allusion to the myth of the hand of the first Fulani herdsman, Kikala. At Tin Felki, Ba recognized a hexagonal carnelian jewel as related to the Agades cross, a fertility charm still used by Fulani women. There are also details in the paintings which correspond to elements from Fulani myths taught during the initiation rites like the hermaphroditic cow. The Fulani initiation field is depicted graphically with the sun surrounded by a circle lined-up with heads of cows as different phases of the moon at the bottom and surmounted by a male and a female figures. The female figure even has a hanging braid of hair to the back. Though no exact dates have been established for the paintings they are undoubtedly much earlier than the historic times when the Fulani were first noticed in Western Sahara.

Effects of Expansion

The rise of Tengualla and his son led to three major shifts in the cultural identity of the Fulani:

• The occupation of Futa Toro caused the Fulani people to be identified as a settled, urban–based community, as opposed to the traditional pastoralist ways that emphasized the nomadic nature of cattle herding. The shift from a nomadic civilization to an urban society mandated changes in agricultural production, settlement building, and water conservation.

• Through the occupation of Futa Toro, the Fulani people came to accept structures of urban authority not traditionally seen in nomadic tribes. For example, urban life necessitated political authority being allocated to chiefs and ruling families.

• The Fulani that occupied Futa Toro held fast to traditional religious beliefs, instead of converting to Islam the prominent religion of the area. Their religious views caused many Muslim traders in the area to relocate to predominantly Muslim areas, leading to a decline in trade and the commercial value of Futa Toro.

Timeline of Fulani history

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Geographical Distribution

While their early habitat in West Africa was apparently in an area in the vicinity of the borders of present-day Mali, Senegal and Mauritania, they are now, after centuries of gradual migrations and conquests, spread throughout a wide band of West and Central Africa. The Fulani People occupy a vast geographical expanse located roughly in a longitudinal East-West band immediately south of the Sahara, and just north of the coastal rain forest and swamps, although situations have changed a lot in recent times, and, a sizable proportion of Fulani people now live in the heavily forested zones to the south, in countries like Sierra Leone, Nigeria, Cameroon, Guinea, The Central African Republic and the Democratic Republic of Congo. Various Fulbe subgroups are now found well within the forested southern quarter of West and Central Africa. There are approximately 40 million Fulani people. They are considered among the most “widely dispersed and culturally diverse peoples in all of Africa.” There are generally three different types of Fulani based on settlement patterns, viz: the Nomadic/Pastoral or Mbororo, The Semi-Nomadic and the Settled or "Town Fulani". The pastoral Fulani move around with their cattle throughout the year. Typically, they do not stay around, for long stretches {not more than 2–4 months at a time} . The semi-nomadic Fulani can either be Fulbe families who happen to settle down temporarily at particular times of the year, or Fulbe families who do not "browse" around past their immediate surroundings, and even though they possess livestock, they do not wander away from a fixed or settled homestead not too far away, they are basically "In-betweeners" . Settled Fulani live in villages, towns and cities permanently and have given up nomadic life completely, in favor of an urban one. These processes of settlement, concentration and military conquest led to the existence of organized and long-established communities of Fulani, varying in size from small villages to towns. Today, some major Fulani towns include: Labé, Pita, Mamou and Dalaba in Guinea, Kaedi, Matam and Podor in Senegal and Mauritania, Bandiagara, Mopti, Dori, Gorom-Gorom and Djibo in Mali and Burkina Faso, on the bend of the Niger, and Birnin Kebbi, Gombe, Yola, Jalingo, Mayo Belwa, Mubi, Maroua, Ngaoundere and Garoua in the countries of Nigeria and Cameroon.

Main Fulani Sub-Groups
Fulbe Adamawa	Nigeria  Cameroon  Chad  Central African Republic  Sudan	Eastern Fulbe
Fulbe Mbororo	Nigeria  Cameroon  Chad  Niger  Central African Republic  Sudan  Democratic Republic of Congo	Eastern Fulbe
Fulbe Bagirmi	Central African Republic  Chad	Eastern Fulbe
Fulbe Sokoto	Nigeria  Niger	Eastern Fulbe
Fulbe Gombe	Nigeria	Eastern Fulbe
Fulbe Borgu	Nigeria  Benin  Togo	Central Fulbe
Fulbe Liptaako	Mali  Niger  Burkina Faso	Central Fulbe
Fulbe Massina	Mali	Central Fulbe
Fulbe Nioro	Mali  Senegal  Mauritania	Western Fulbe
Fulbe Futa Jallon	Guinea  Guinea Bissau  Sierra Leone	Western Fulbe
Fulbe Futa Tooro	Senegal  Mauritania	Western Fulbe
Fulbe Fuladu	Senegal  Guinea Bissau  Gambia	Western Fulbe

Typically, Fulbe belonging to the same affinity bloc, tend to cluster together in Culture, Customs, and Dialectal Variety. Eastern Fulbe sub groups tend to be more similar to each other than to other Sub-groups, same applies with the most Western groups. Culturally speaking, the Central Fulbe Sub-groups are roughly "In-between" the Western and Eastern Fulani cultural Niches. For example, the Massina Fulbe share similarities both dialectally and culturally to Nigeria/Cameroonian (Eastern), as well as Senegalese/Guinean (Western) Fulbe cultures. Accordingly, the Western groups are the most divergent from the Eastern groups and Vice-Versa. Overall however, all share most cultural practices to a large extent.

Rise to West African dominance

For a long time, Fulani people remained a minority in most areas. Small groups were already familiar with Islam which had entered West Africa via the trade routes across the Sahara, and from the 1700's onwards, they became an hegemonic force, and were politically dominant in many areas. Moreover, the political situation was highly unstable in the western Sahel because an invasion by the Moroccans had led to an anarchical Situation. In addition, during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries periods of severe drought plagued the region, negatively affecting the political situation.. The jihads staged by the Fulbe in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries throughout the Sahel and Sudan of West Africa can thus be interpreted as a reaction to this political instability. The Fulbe established centres of political power, some of which developed into emirates. The main nuclei of Fulbe power were the polities in the Senegal River Valley, the Fuuta Jallon mountains, in Guinea, the Inland Delta of the Niger in Mali (Maasina), the north of Nigeria and the Adamawa Plateau in Cameroon. In between these big centres there were numerous small polities dominated by the Fulbe in the central Gourma of present-day Mali and the north and west of Burkina Faso (Jelgoji, Boboola, Dori, Liptako), northern Benin (Borgu), the Sene-Gambia, northern Senegal (Bundu), and the southern and western parts of present-day Niger (Dallol Bosso, Birni N'konni

Imamate of Futa Jallon

The Emirate / Imamate of Timbo in the Fuuta Jallon was the first of the Fulbe emirates in West Africa. It developed from a revolt by Islamic Fulbe against their oppression by pagan Pulli (non-Islamic Fulbe) and Jallonke (the original Mande inhabitants of the Fuuta Jallon, during the first half of the 18th Century. The first ruler took the title of Almaami and resided in Timbo. The newly formed imamate, was mostly located mainly in present day Guinea, but also spanned parts of modern day Guinea Bissau, Senegal, and Sierra Leone. This emirate was, in fact, a federal state of nine provinces. After Muslim Fulbe victory, People who had resisted the jihad were deprived of their rights to land except for a small piece for their own subsistence, and were reduced to servitude. The nomad Pulli Fulbe lost all freedom of movement, and thus, began to settle en-Masse, And the Jalonke lost their noble status and became slaves (maccube). Later on, due to strife between two branches of the royal lineage, (the Soriya and the Alphaya) a System for the rotation of office between these branches was set up. This led to an almost permanent state of civil strife, since none of the parties was inclined to respect the System, which considerably weakened the power of the political centre.

The Empire of Massina

The Maasina Emirate, also called Diina ('religion' in Fulfulde, with Arabic origins), was established by the Fulbe jihad led by Sheeku Aamadu, in 1818. The origins of the Maasina Emirate in the Inner Delta of the Niger are also found in rebellion, this time against the Bambara / Bamana Kingdom of Segou, a political power that controlled the region from outside. This jihad was inspired by events in northern Nigeria where an important scholar of the time, Usman Dan Fodio, established an Islamic empire with Sokoto as its capital. For some time, groups of Fulbe had been dominant in parts of the delta, hereby creating a complex hierarchy dating back through several waves of conquest. However, due to internal warfare they were never able to organize a countervailing force against the Bamana Kingdom. In 1818, an Islamic cleric named Aamadu Hammadi Buubu united the Fulbe under the banner of Islam and fought a victorious battle against the Bamana and their allies. He subsequently established his rule in the Inland Delta and the adjacent dry lands east and west of the delta. This state appears to have had tight control over its core area, as is testified by the fact that its political and economic organization is still visible today in the organization of agricultural production in the Inland Delta. Nevertheless, the hegemony of the emirate was constantly threatened. During the reign of Aamadu Aamadu, the grandson of Sheeku Aamadu, internal contradictions weakened the emirate until it became easy prey for the forces of the Futanke, which subsequently overthrew the Maasina Emirate, in 1862

The Futanke / Tukulor Empire

Many regard the Futanke or Toucouleur conquest of the western Sudan and central Mali as a 'reform movement. The character of the Futanke Emirate was somewhat different, although its founding was related to the conquest of the Maasina Emirate and the Bamana Kingdoms of Segou and Kaarta in the aftermath of a movement for reform. Threatened by French colonial forces while at the same time being supplied with firearms by them, the Futanke staged a jihad to fight paganism and the competing Islamic brotherhood of the Tijannya. lt's founder, El Hadj Umar Tall an Islamic reformer originating from the Fuuta Tooro on the banks of the Senegal River, died fighting against rebels shortly after his forces defeated the Maasina Emirate. After El Hadj Umar's death, the emirate was divided in three and ruled by his sons. These three units had their capitals in the towns of Nioro , Segou and Bandiagara. A most important distinction was between noblemen (free people) and the non-free {Rimmaibe or Maccube}. The noblemen consisted of the ruling class of political overlords and Islamic clerics, as well as the pastoral Fulbe populations, who helped them come to power, who formed a group of vassals to the political elite. They were considered noblemen although in reality their political influence was minimal. The conquered populations were reduced to servitude or slavery and more slaves were captured in order to provide enough labour for the functioning of the economy. In addition, there were groups of bards, courtiers and artisans who occupied an ambiguous political and social position

The Sokoto Caliphate & It's Various Emirates

Main Articles: Sokoto Caliphate

The Sokoto Caliphate was by far the largest and most successful legacy of Fulani politic in Western Africa, Throughout the 1800s, it was one of the largest and most powerful empires in sub-Saharan Africa until European conquests in 1903. It included several emirates, the largest of which was Adamawa, although the Kano Emirate was the most populated. Others included, but are not limited to: Gombe Emirate, Gwandu Emirate, Bauchi Emirate, Katsina Emirate, Zazzau Emirate, Muri Emirate Etc

while establishing their hegemony, the Fulbe defmed a strict social hierarchy and had to impose limitations on all kinds of economic and trading activities. The freedom for pastoralists to move around was curtailed in order to ensure the smooth functioning of other production activities such as cereal cultivation and, in the case of Maasina, of fishing activities. Economic activities had to be controlled to ensure a constant flow of taxes and commodities to the state apparatus and the standing army, especially for the cavalry. There appears to be a considerable résistance to the forced acceptance of Islam by these emirates. For example, many nomadic Fulbe, predominantly Wodaabe fled northern Nigeria when their liberty was curtailed and they were forced to convert to Islam following the jihads instigated by Usman Dan Fodio from Sokoto. Conversion to Islam meant not only changing one's religion but also submitting to rules dealing with ail aspects of social, political and cultural life, which many nomadic Fulbe were not comfortable with.

Culture, language and Lifestyle

The language of Fulas is called Pulaar or Fulfulde depending on the region, or variants thereof. It is also the language of the Tukulor. It is a language closely related to Wolof and Serer. All Senegalese and Mauritanians who speak the language natively are known as the Halpulaar or Haalpulaar'en, which stands for "speakers of Pulaar" ("hal" is the root of the Pulaar verb haalugol, meaning "to speak"). In some areas, e.g. in northern Cameroon, Fulfulde is a local lingua franca. Among the nomadic Fulani, women in their spare time make handicrafts including engraved gourds, weavings, knitting, Beautifully made covers for Calabashes known as Mbeedu as well as baskets. The Fulani men are less involved in the production of crafts such as pottery, iron-working, and dyeing unlike males from neighboring ethnic groups around them. They believe these activities may violate their code of conduct ( Pulaaku ) and bring shame upon them.

On the social front, Fulani are currently facing many problems. Drought often reduces their water supply and pasture for grazing cattle, disease may also strike the herds. Increasingly, there is less land available for herding purposes, and conflicts with settled populations have been on the increase. Present-day governments are also curtailing the Fulani movements or trying to force them to settle down. Many Fulani youth have migrated into the big bustling cities of West and Central Africa, which are not within traditional Fulani areas, they migrate to such cities as Lagos, Conakry, Bamako, Douala, Abidjan, Dakar, Free Town, etc., in search of economic opportunities.

Central to the Fulani people's lifestyle, is a code of behavior known as The Pulaaku or (Laawol FulBe) in Fulfulde, literally meaning the Fulani pathway which are passed on by each generation as high moral values of the Fulbe, which enables them to maintain their identity across boundaries and changes of life style. It is essentially viewed as what makes a person Fulani or "Fulaniness", Pulaaku consists of four basic tenants. The dominant traits of Laawol Pulaaku or the Fulani way are munyal, hakkiilo, semteende, sagata and an intimate understanding of both the Fulfulde language and people. Munyal is a cross between strength and courage in adversity and a stoic acceptance or endurance of the supposedly pre-ordained vicissitudes of life. It is often translated as patience.

The word hakkiilo (hakkille) meaning intelligence, foresight and common sense, conveys a blending of prudence and shrewdness in livelihood management and face to face encounters. Semteende (shame) is best described both as a lacking of restraint (gacce/yaage) and self-control in daily social interaction, and evidencing a weakness when facing adversity. It is most often translated as shame. When someone acts shamefully, Fulbe say o sempti meaning they shamed themselves, or alternatively, o walaa semteende (o wala gacce) meaning they have no shame. In other words a pullo must know of the social constraints on behavior and be able to avoid contravening them in all situations, especially in front of others. A true pullo is in total control of his emotions and impulses

• Munyal: Patience, self-control, discipline, prudence
• Gacce / Semteende: Modesty, respect for others (including foes)
• Hakkille: Wisdom, forethought, personal responsibility, hospitality
• Sagata / Tiinaade: Courage, hard work

With the exception of Guinea (where the Fula make up an ethnic plurality {largest single ethnic group} - or approximately 40%+ of the population), Fulas are minorities in every country they live in (most countries of West Africa and parts of Central and North Africa), so most also speak other dominant languages of the countries they inhabit, making many Fulani bilingual or even trilingual in nature. Such languages include Hausa, Bambara, Wolof, Arabic, etc.

Gallery of some Famous Fulɓe

Clothing

There are no particular outfits for all Fulani subgroups, dressing and clothing accessories such as ornaments, mostly depend on the particular region.The traditional dress of the Fulbe Wodaabe consists of long colourful flowing robes, modestly embroidered or otherwise decorated. In the Futa Jallon highlands of central Guinea, it is common to see men wearing a distinctive hat with colorful embroidery, such as in the picture to the left. In Nigeria, Cameroon and Niger, men wear a hat that tapers off at three angular tips, known as a Noppire, both Men and Women wear a characteristic white or black cotton fabric gown, adorned with intricate Blue, Red and Green thread embroidery work, with styles differing according to region and sex. It isn't uncommon to see the women decorate their hair with bead hair accessories as well as cowrie shells. Also characteristic of Fula tradition is that of women using henna for hand, arm and feet decorations, just like in other similar cultures of Africa. The Fulani women are very graceful in nature. Their hair is long and is braided into 5 long braids that either hang from their heads or sometimes are looped on the sides. It is common for the women and girls to have Silver coins and Amber attached to their braids. Some of these coins are very old and have been passed down in the family. The women enjoy wearing many bracelets on their wrists. Like the men, the women have markings on their faces around their eyes and mouths that they were given as children.

The Western Fulbe in countries like Mali, Senegal and Mauritania use indigo inks around the mouth, resulting in a blackening around the lips and gums. Fulani men are often seen wearing a solid color of shirt and pants which goes down to their lower calves, made from locally grown cotton, a long cloth wrapped around their faces, while wearing a conical had made from straw and leather on their turbans, and carrying their walking sticks across their shoulders with their arms resting on top of it. Often the men have markings on either side of their faces and/or on their foreheads. They received these markings as children. Fula ethics are strictly governed by the notion of pulaaku. Women wear long robes with flowery shawls. They decorate themselves with necklaces, earrings, nose rings and anklets

Herding

Fula are primarily known to be pastoralists, but are also traders in some areas. Most Fula in the countryside spend long times alone on foot, they can be seen very frequently parading with their cattle, throughout the west African hinterland, moving their herds in search of water and better pasture. They were, and still are the only major migratory people group of West Africa, although the Tuareg, another nomadic tribe of North African origin, live just immediately north of Fula territory, and sometimes, side by side the Fulani in countries such as Mali, Niger and Burkina Faso. The Fulani as a result of their constant wandering of the past, can be seen in every climatic zone and habitat of West Africa, from the Deserts of the North, to the derived Savannah and Forests of the south. From the 16th to 20th centuries, many Fulani communities settled in the highlands of the jos Plateau, the Western High Plateau of Bamenda and Adamawa Plateau of Nigeria and the Cameroons, these are the highest elevated places in West Africa, and altitude can reach up to 8,700 Feet above sea level. As a result, the highland plateaus have a more temperate climate condusive for cattle herding activities, which allowed Fulbe populations to settle there in waves of Migrations from further West. Though most Fula now live in towns or villages, a large proportion of the population is still either fully nomadic, or semi nomadic in nature. Wealth is counted by how large the herd of cattle is and how many cattle one has. Long ago Fulani tribes and clans used to fight over cattle and grazing rights. Being the most treasured animal that the Fulanis herd, the cows are very special, many people say that a person cannot speak Fulfulde if he does not own a cow. The Fulani have a tradition of giving a "habbanaya" - that is a cow which is loaned to another until she calves. Once the calf is weaned it is retained and the cow is returned to its owner. This habbanaya is a highly prized animal. Upon receipt of this gift, there is a special ceremony in honor of the gift. The recipient buys special treats and invites his neighbors for this event in which the habbanaya is given a name. The habbanaya is never to be struck under any circumstance.

Fulani nomads keep various species of cattle however, the Zebu cattle is the most common in the West African hinterland, due to its drought resistant traits, in the wetter areas of Fouta Djallon and Cassamance, the dwarf Ndama cattle is more common, as they are highly resistant to Trypanosomiasis and other conditions directly associated with high humidity. Sub-species of Zebu include the White Fulani locally known as the Aku, Akuji, Bororoji, White Kano, Yakanaji or Bunaji which are an important beef breed of cattle found throughout the area conquered by the Fulani people and beyond in the Sahel zone of Africa. The Red Fulani, which are called the Jafun / Djafoun in (Nigeria) and (Cameroon), and Fellata in (Chad and Ethiopia), as well as other names such as the M'Bororo, Red Bororo, or Bodaadi, another sub specie is the Sokoto Gudali and the Adamawa Gudali or simply Gudali , which means: horned and short legged, in the Hausa language. The widely accepted theory for the origin of present day zebu cattle in West Africa states that they came from the westward spread of the early zebu populations in East Africa through the Sudan. As for other zebu types, the cattle breeds of this group are found mainly in the drier regions. Their body conformation resembles the zebu cattle of eastern Africa. The zebu did not appear in West Africa until about 1800 . The increasing aridity of the climate and the deterioration of the environment in the Sahel appear to have favoured the introduction and spread of the zebu, as they are superior to longhorn and shorthorn (Bos taurus) cattle in withstanding drought conditions.

The origins and classification of the Fulani remains controversial; one school of thought is of the opinion that the Fulani cattle are truly long-horned zebus that first arrived in Africa from Asia on the east coast; these are believed to have been introduced into West Africa by the Arab invaders during the seventh century, AD, roughly about the same time that the short-horned zebus arrived into East Africa. This theory is supported by the appearance of the skull as well as the thoracic hump of the Fulani cattle. Another school of thought contends that these cattle originated from the Horn of Africa, present-day Ethiopia and Somalia, and that interbreeding between the short-horned zebu (which arrived in the Horn around the first millennium BC) and the ancient Hamitic Longhorn and/or Brachyceros shorthorn (which had arrived much earlier) occurred in the Horn about 2000-1500 BC. The subsequent successive introductions of the short-horned zebu cattle are believed to have displaced most of these sanga cattle into southern Africa. During this period of constant movements of people and animals within Africa, some of these sanga cattle probably intermixed with the short-horned, thoracic-humped cattle to produce the so-called thoracic-humped sanga. The latter may have migrated, most probably along with the spread of Islam, westerly to constitute what are today the lyre-horned cattle of West and Central Africa, including the Fulani cattle. Originally the White Fulani were indigenous to north Nigeria, south-east Niger and north-east Cameroon, owned by both Fulani and Hausa people. They then spread to southern Chad and western Sudan.

Music

The Fula have a rich musical culture and play a variety of traditional instruments including drums, hoddu (a plucked skin-covered lute similar to a banjo) and riti or riiti (a one-string bowed instrument similar to a violin), in addition to vocal music. The well known Senegalese Fula popular musician Baaba Maal sings in Pulaar on his recordings. "Zaghareet" or ululation is a popular form of vocal music formed by rapidly moving the tongue sideways and making a sharp, high sound. The Fulani music is as varied and rich as its people. The numerous sub-groups all maintain unique repertoires of music and dance. Songs and dances reflect traditional life and are specifically designed for each individual occasion. Music is played at any occasion: when herding cattle, working in the fields, preparing food, or at the temple. Music is extremely important to the village life cycle with field cultivation,harvest and winnowing of millet performed to the rhythm of the songs and drums. Fulani herders have a special affinity for the flute and violin Nianioru. The young Fulani shepherd like to whistle and sing softly as they wander the silent savannah with cattle and goats. The truly Fulani instruments are the 1 string viola of the Fulani (nianioru), the flute, the two to five string lute hoddu or molo, and the buuba and bawdi set of drums. But they are also influenced by the other instruments of the region such as the beautiful West African harp, the kora, the balafon. Entertainment is the role of certain casts. The performance of music is the realm of specialized casts. The Griots or Awlube recite history of the people, places and events of the community.

Food

Milk, known as Kossam in Fulfulde, the language of the Fulani, is very central to Fulbe identity. It is revered and loved as a drink or as one of its various processed forms, such as Yoghurt and Cheese. Kettugol is derived from milk fat, and is used in light cooking. It isn't uncommon to see Fulani women hawking around milk products in characteristic beautifully decorated calabashes balanced on their heads. Other meals include, a heavy porridge (nyiiri) made of flour from such grains as millet, sorghum, or corn which is eaten in combination with soup (takai, haako) made from tomatoes, onions, spices, peppers, and other vegetables. Another popular meal eaten by almost all Fulani communities, is made from Fermenting Milk into Yoghurt and eaten with Corn cous-cous known as Latchiiri or Dakkere, either in the same bowl, or separately. The Fulbe Wodaabe traditionally eat millet, milk and meat as staples. Millet is eaten in the morning, noon and night as a porridge with a sauce or stew which usually contains tomatoes, peppers, bone, meat, onion and water and other vegetables. On special occasions they eat meat such as goat or beef.A thick beverage similar to the Tuareg beverage eghajira is made by pounding goat cheese, milk, dates and millet.

Houses

Traditionally, nomadic Fula live in domed houses known as a Bukkaru. During the dry season, the characteristically hemispherically shaped domed houses are supported by compact millet stalk pillars, and by reed mats in the wet or rainy season. Once they are set up, the room is divided into a sleeping compartment, and another compartment, where calabashes and guards of all sizes are intricately arranged in a stack according to their sizes and functions. Spoons made from gourd are hanged from the rooftop, together with others meant for grain storage. These temporary houses are very easy to make and dismantle, as typical of houses from nomadic societies. With recent trends however, many Fula now live in mud or concrete block houses.

Notable Fulani people by country

Nigeria

• Modibo Adama, Fulani scholar and holy warrior
• Usman dan Fodio, founder of Sokoto Caliphate
• Nana Asma’u, scholar, author, and pioneer of women's education, Sokoto Caliphate
• Umaru Yar'Adua, President (2007-2010), Governor of Katsina (1999-2007)
• Shehu Shagari, President (1979-1983)
• Atiku Abubakar, Vice President (1999-2007)
• Major General Muhammadu Buhari, Head of State (1983–85), Chairman Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (1978), Federal Commissioner for Petroleum and Natural Resources (1976–78), Governor of North-Eastern State of Nigeria(1975–76)
• Major General Shehu Musa Yar'Adua, Vice President (1976-1979) and Brother of Former Nigerian President Umaru Yar'Adua
• Professor Ibrahim Gambari, Under Secretary-General/Special Adviser - Africa in the UN; Minister for External Affairs (1984-1985)
• Mallam Sanusi Lamido Sanusi, Central Bank Governor of Nigeria (2009-)
• Alhaji Aliko Dangote, Chairman and CEO of Dangote Group; Richest person of African descent.
• Dr. Mohammed Shata, Minister of Internal Affairs (2000-2003), Minister of National Planning (1999-2000)
• Fatimah Tuggar Visual Artist
• Alhaji Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, Prime Minister (1960-1966)
• Sir Ahmadu Bello, First Premier of Northern Nigeria (1954-1966)
• Vice-Admiral Murtala Nyako, Governor of Adamawa State (2007-), Deputy Chief of Defence Staff (1992–93), Chief of Naval Staff ( 1990–92), Governor of Niger State (1976–77)
• Muhammadu Barkindo Aliyu Musdafa, the traditional ruler/Lamido of the Adamawa Emirate in Adamawa State (2010-)
• Professor Jubril Aminu, Professor of Cardiology, Senator for Adamawa Central constituency Adamawa State (2003-), Minister of Education, Minister of Petroleum and Mineral Resources (1989–1992)
• Alhaji Dr. Ado Bayero, Emir of Kano (1963- ), Former Ambassador to Senegal,

Guinea

• Saifoulaye Diallo,(1923–1981), Minister of Foreign Affairs (1969. -1972); Minister of finance; Minister of Social Services; President of the National Assembly (1958-1963); President of the Territorial Assembly ( 1957-1958)
• Diallo Telli, Minister of Justice ( 1972-1976); First Secretary General of the Organization of African State (OAU)( 1964-1972); Representative at the United Nations( 1958-1964).
• Cellou Dalein Diallo, President of the Union of Democratic Forces of Guinea, Prime Minister ( 2004-2006); Minister of Fisheries and Aquaculture ( 2004-2004); Minister of Public Works and Transportation (1999-2004 ); Minister of Infrastructure ( 1997-1999); Minister of Transportation, Telecommunication and Tourism ( 1996-1997).
• Abdulrahman Ibrahim Ibn Sori, Prince Among Slaves
• Bobo Balde, football star
• Katoucha, former haute couture model and anti-female circumcision activist
• Abdoul Salam Sow, former footballer
• Abdallah Bah, football star
• Ibrahima Diallo, football star
• Alpha Yaya Diallo, musician
• Siradiou Diallo, Guinean journalist and politician
• Tierno Monenembo, Guinean writer
• Folly Bah Thibault, anchor at the main broadcast-centre of Al Jazeera English, in Doha in Qatar.

Cameroon

• Ahmadou Ahidjo, first President of Cameroon ( 1960-1982), 1st Prime Minister of East Cameroun ( 01/1960-05/1960)
• Issa Hayatou, President of African Football Confederation (CAF) (1987- ).
• Bello Bouba Maigari, President of the National Union for Democracy and Progress( UNDP); Minister of Tourism and Leisure ( 2011- ); Minister of transportation (2009-2009); Minister of Post and Telecommunication ( 2004-2009), MInister of Industrial and Commercial Development (1997-2004) ; Prime Minister (1982-1983).
• Sadou Hayatou, General Manager of Bank of Central African States ( BEAC) (1992-2008); Prime Minister ( 1991-1992).
• Garga Haman Adji, President of the Alliance for Democracy and Development (ADD) ; Minister of the Civil Service and the Supreme State auditor ( 1990-1992).
• Issa Tchiroma Bakary, President of the Front for the National Salvation of Cameroun;(FSNC) ; Minister of Communication ( 2009- ); Minister of Transportation ( 1992-1996).

Gambia

• Aja Dr. Isatou Njie Saidy, Vice President (1997- ), First Female Vice President in West Africa; Secretary of State for Health, Social Welfare and Women's Affairs( 1997- );
• Hassan Bubacar Jallow, Prosecutor of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR)(2003-), Attorney General and MInister of Justice ( 1984-1994).
• Cherno Jallow, Director of Policy Research & Statistics Financial Services Commission, British Virgin Islands (2007- ); Chairman of Caribbean Financial Action Task Force ( CFATF) (2012-2013), Attoney General for the British Virgin Islands (1999-2007), Minister of Justice of Gambia (1988-1995).

Senegal

• Mariama Bâ Senegalese author and feminist
• Daouda Sow, Former head of the parliament
• Baaba Maal, Composer, singer, head of the band Daande Leñol
• Omar Ibn Said, Scholar and former slave in America
• Oumou Sy, Fashion designer
• Ibrahim Ba, French-Senegalese former football player
• Mamadou Niang, football player
• Issa Ba, football player
• Macky Sall, President (2012- ), Mayor of Fatick ( 2009-2012), President of the National Assembly ( 2007-2008), Prime Minister ( 2004- 2007).
• Demba Ba, Football player
• Tidjane Thiam, Ivorian with Senegalese Ancestry,the Chief Executive (CEO) of Prudential plc, the UK-based insurance group, the first black person to lead a FTSE 100 company
• Ayuba Suleiman Diallo, also known as Job ben Solomon, was a famous Muslim who was a victim of the Atlantic slave trade
• Omar Sy, French actor with Senegalese Ancestry

Niger

• Mamadou Tandja, President (1999-2010)
• Amadou Cheiffou, Prime Minister (1991-1993)
• Hama Amadou, President of National Assembly (2011- ), Prime Minister ( 1995-1996, 2000-2007)
• Albadé Abouba, Minister of State for Interior, Public Safety and Decentralization (2002-2004; 2007-2010), Prime Minister ( 09/2009-10/2009)

Mali

• Amadou Hampâté Bâ, researcher and author
• Seku Ahmadu, Founding King of Fula Kingdom of Macina, Mopti
• Adame Ba Konaré, historian and spouse of the former president Alpha Oumar Konaré
• Amadou Toumani Touré, Malian President
• Mountaga Tall, lawyer and political figure founding president of CNID party and ex-vice president of the National Assembly of Mali
• Ousmane Sy, politician
• Habib Koité, musician
• Abdoulaye Sékou Sow, Former Prime Minister from 12 April 1993 to 4 February 1994
• Yoro Diakité, Prime minister (1968–69)

Sierra Leone

• Amadu Wurie, Early Sierra Leonean educationist and politician, Minister of Education (1961-1967)
• Sir Banja Tejan-Sie,Governor-General (1968-1971), Chief Justice (1967-1968)
• Amadu Jalloh, Sierra Leonean politician
• Alimamy Rassin, Sierra Leonean chief during colonial period
• Dr. Minkailu Bah, Minister of Education, Youth and Sports (2007-)
• Sulaiman Tejan-Jalloh, Former High Commissioner to the United Kingdom, Minister of Transport and Communications (1996-1997)
• Abubakarr Jalloh, Former Minister of Mineral Resources
• Alimamy Jalloh, Sierra Leonean football star
• Mahmadu Alphajor Bah, Sierra Leonean football star
• Umu Hawa Tejan Jalloh,First Female Chief Justice (2008-), Associate Justice of the Supreme Court (2002-2008)
• Neneh Cherry, Swedish singer-songwriter and rapper of mixed Black African-European descent
• Dr. Abass Bundu, Minister of Foreign Affairs (1994–1995), Executive Secretary of ECOWAS (1989–1993), Minister of Agriculture (1982–85), Assistant Director of International Affairs and Consultant in Constitutional Law in the Commonwealth Secretariat in London (1975–82)
• Mariama Jalloh, Singer and Song-writer lives in Germany

Burkina Faso

• Thomas Sankara, Former President of Burkina Faso
• Youssouf Sambo Bâ, Burkinabé politician
• Bénéwendé Stanislas Sankara, Burkinabé politician
• Hama Arba Diallo, Vice President of National Assembly, Ambassador to China India and Japan (1988–89), Minister of Foreign Affairs (1983–84)
• Salif Diallo, Ambassador to Austria, held many ministerial positions
• Sékou Ba, Minister of Animal Resources (2007- ), Minister of Housing and City Planning (2006-2007)

Guinea-Bissau

• Manuel Serifo Nhamadjo, Interim President ( 05/2012- ), President of National People's Assembly ( 01/2012-04/2012)

See also

• Tokolor

References

Notes

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17. http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Fulani.aspx%7CThe Fulani form the largest pastoral nomadic group in the world. The Bororo'en are noted for the size of their cattle herds. In addition to fully nomadic groups, however, there are also semisedentary Fulani—Fulbe Laddi—who also farm, although they argue that they do so out of necessity, not choice. A small group, the Fulbe Mbalu or Sheep Fulani, rely on sheep for their livelihood.
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39. Fage, John Donnelly (1997). "Upper and Lower Guinea". In Roland Oliver (ed.). The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521209816.
40. http://www.webpulaaku.net/defte/adepegba/conclusion.html
41. "Time line". Jamtan.com. Retrieved 2013-12-28.
42. https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/9616/ASC_1268914_030.pdf?sequence=1
43. https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/9616/ASC_1268914_030.pdf?sequence=1
44. ^ "Fulani - Introduction, Location, Language, Folklore, Religion, Major holidays, Rites of passage, Relationships, Living conditions". Everyculture.com. Retrieved 2013-12-28.
45. "Pulaaku Ethics". Web.archive.org. 2007-12-27. Archived from the original on 2007-12-27. Retrieved 2013-12-28.
46. http://dagris.ilri.cgiar.org/display.asp?ID=77
47. http://dagris.ilri.cgiar.org/display.asp?ID=77

General references

• Almanach de Bruxelles (now a paying site)
• Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (ed.) (2005): "Adamawa Fulfulde". Ethnologue: Languages of the World, 15th ed. Dallas: SIL International. Accessed 25 June 2006.
• Ndukwe, Pat I., Ph.D. (1996). Fulani. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc.
• Christiane Seydou, (ed.) (1976). Bibliographie générale du monde peul. Niamey, Institut de Recherche en Sciences Humaines du Niger

Further reading

• Prof. Mark D. DeLancey's Fulbe studies bibliography, Accessed 25 March 2008.

External links

• missionafrica.org.uk
• webPulaaku Portal of Fulɓe history and culture
• Online magazine published/edited in Fulfulde, peeral.com
• Online magazine published/edited in Fulfulde, pulaagu.com
• Online magazine in Fulfulde, pulaar.org
• Online Magazine, yaakaare.com
• Fulfulde online paper, gerngalfulbe.com
• Fulfulde online news site, mbiimi.com
• KJPF Egypt
• Online bilingual dictionary, peeral.com
• Mini trilingual dictionary of political and legal terminology, peeral.com
• Portal of Fulɓe Fuuta Jaloo history and culture, webfuuta.net
• Pulaar Speaking Association
• WorldStatesmen - Nigerian Traditional states

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