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{{Short description|Region in South Asia}} | |||
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{{Other uses|Kashmir (disambiguation)|Kasmir (disambiguation)}} | |||
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'''Kashmir''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|æ|ʃ|m|ɪər}} {{respell|KASH|meer}} or {{IPAc-en|k|æ|ʃ|ˈ|m|ɪər}} {{respell|kash|MEER}}) is the ] of the ]. Until the mid-19th century, the term "Kashmir" denoted only the ] between the ] and the ]. The term has since come to encompass a larger area that includes the India-administered territories of ] and ], the Pakistan-administered territories of ] and ], and the Chinese-administered territories of ] and the ].<ref name="britannica-intro">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Kashmir: region, Indian subcontinent|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=16 July 2016|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Kashmir-region-Indian-subcontinent|archive-date=13 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190813203817/https://www.britannica.com/place/Kashmir-region-Indian-subcontinent|url-status=live}} Quote: "Kashmir, region of the northwestern Indian subcontinent. It is bounded by the Uygur Autonomous Region of Xinjiang to the northeast and the Tibet Autonomous Region to the east (both parts of China), by the Indian states of Himachal Pradesh and Punjab to the south, by Pakistan to the west, and by Afghanistan to the northwest. The northern and western portions are administered by Pakistan and comprise three areas: Azad Kashmir, Gilgit, and Baltistan, ... The southern and southeastern portions constitute the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir. The Indian- and Pakistani-administered portions are divided by a "line of control" agreed to in 1972, although neither country recognizes it as an international boundary. In addition, China became active in the eastern area of Kashmir in the 1950s and since 1962 has controlled the northeastern part of Ladakh (the easternmost portion of the region)."</ref><ref name="bbc-intro">{{cite news|title=Kashmir territories profile|work=BBC News |date=4 January 2012 |access-date=16 July 2016|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-11693674|archive-date=16 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150716152335/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-11693674|url-status=live}} Quote: "The Himalayan region of Kashmir has been a flashpoint between India and Pakistan for over six decades. Since India's partition and the creation of Pakistan in 1947, the nuclear-armed neighbours have fought three wars over the Muslim-majority territory, which both claim in full but control in part. Today it remains one of the most militarised zones in the world. China administers parts of the territory."</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Kashmir profile—timeline|work=BBC News|date=5 January 2012 |access-date=16 July 2016|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-16069078|quote=<br/>'''1950s'''—China gradually occupies eastern Kashmir (Aksai Chin).<br/>'''1962'''—China defeats India in a short war for control of Aksai Chin.<br/>'''1963'''—Pakistan cedes the Trans-Karakoram Tract of Kashmir to China.|archive-date=22 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160722065125/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-16069078|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
] and the ] or Vale of Kashmir]] | |||
] while the ] is under Chinese occupation]] | |||
], Kashmir]] | |||
{{OtherUses|the region Kashmir}} | |||
] in Kashmir, the ninth-highest mountain on Earth, is the western anchor of the Himalayas]] | |||
In 1820, the ], under ], annexed Kashmir.<ref name=imp-gazet-history/> In 1846, after the Sikh defeat in the ], and upon the purchase of the region from the ] under the ], the Raja of Jammu, ], became the new ruler of Kashmir. The rule of his descendants, under the ''paramountcy'' (or tutelage<ref name=sneddon-paramountcy-tutelage>{{citation|last=Sneddon|first=Christopher|title=Independent Kashmir: An incomplete aspiration|year=2021|publisher=Manchester University Press|pages=12–13|quote=Paramountcy was the ‘vague and undefined’ feudatory system whereby the British, as the suzerain power, dominated and controlled India’s princely rulers. ... These ‘loyal collaborators of the Raj’ were ‘afforded protection in exchange for helpful behavior in a relationship of tutelage, called paramountcy’.}}</ref><ref name=ganguly-hagerty-2005-paramountcy>{{citation|last1=Ganguly|first1=Sumit|last2=Hagerty|first2=Devin T.| title=Fearful Symmetry: India-Pakistan Crises in the Shadow of Nuclear Weapons|isbn=0-295-98525-9|year=2005|location=Seattle and New Delhi|publisher=University of Washington Press, and Oxford University Press|page=22|quote=... the problem of the 'princely states'. These states had accepted the tutelage of the British Crown under the terms of the doctrine of 'paramountcy' under which they acknowledged the Crown as the 'paramount' authority in the subcontinent.}}</ref>) of the ], lasted until the ] in 1947, when the former ] of the ] became a ], now administered by three countries: ], ], and ].<ref name=britannica-intro/><ref name=americana>{{citation|chapter=Kashmir|title=Encyclopedia Americana|publisher=Scholastic Library Publishing|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l_cWAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA328|year=2006|isbn=978-0-7172-0139-6|page=328|access-date=18 December 2021|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117135716/https://books.google.com/books?id=l_cWAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA328|url-status=live}} C. E Bosworth, University of Manchester Quote: "KASHMIR, kash'mer, the northernmost region of the Indian subcontinent, administered partlv by India, partly by Pakistan, and partly by China. The region has been the subject of a bitter dispute between India and Pakistan since they became independent in 1947";</ref><ref name="Osmanczyk2003">{{citation|last1=Osmańczyk|first1=Edmund Jan|title=Encyclopedia of the United Nations and International Agreements: G to M |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fSIMXHMdfkkC&pg=PA1191|year=2003|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-93922-5 |pages=1191–|access-date=18 December 2021|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140437/https://books.google.com/books?id=fSIMXHMdfkkC&pg=PA1191|url-status=live}} Quote: "Jammu and Kashmir: Territory in northwestern India, subject to a dispute between India and Pakistan. It has borders with Pakistan and China."</ref><ref name=bbc-intro/> | |||
'''Kashmir''' is a region in the northern part of the ]. The term Kashmir historically described the valley just to the south of the westernmost end of the ] range. Politically, however, the term 'Kashmir' describes a much larger area which includes the regions of ], Kashmir, and ]. | |||
== Etymology == | |||
The main "Vale of Kashmir" is relatively low and very fertile, surrounded by magnificent mountains and fed by many mountain streams flowing from adjoining valleys. It is renowned as one of the most spectacularly beautiful places in the world. | |||
The word ''Kashmir'' is thought to have been derived from ] and was referred to as ''{{IAST|káśmīra}}''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.0:1:2152.soas |title=A Comparative Dictionary of the Indo-Aryan Languages |publisher=Dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu |access-date=29 May 2015 |archive-date=5 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205161051/http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.0:1:2152.soas |url-status=dead }}</ref> A popular local etymology of ''Kashmira'' is that it is land desiccated from water.<ref name="Snedden2015">{{citation|last=Snedden|first=Christopher|title=Understanding Kashmir and Kashmiris|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s5KMCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA22|year=2015|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-1-84904-342-7|pages=22–|access-date=11 October 2016|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140437/https://books.google.com/books?id=s5KMCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA22|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
An alternative etymology derives the name from the name of the ] sage ] who is believed to have settled people in this land. Accordingly, ''Kashmir'' would be derived from either ''kashyapa-mir'' (Kashyapa's Lake) or ''kashyapa-meru'' (Kashyapa's Mountain).<ref name="Snedden2015"/> | |||
], the ancient capital, lies alongside ] and is famous for its canals and houseboats. Srinagar (alt. 1,600 m. or 5,200 ft.) acted as a favoured summer capital for many foreign conquerors who found the heat of the north Indian plains in summer oppressive. Just outside the city are found the beautiful Shalimar gardens created by ], the ] emperor, in ]. | |||
The word has been referenced to in a Hindu scripture mantra worshipping the ] goddess ] and is mentioned to have resided in the land of ''kashmira'', or which might have been a reference to the ]. | |||
The region is currently divided amongst three countries: ] controls the northwest portion (] and ]) (India calls these areas "]" (PoK)), ] controls the central and southern portion (]), and the ] has occupied the northeastern portion (]). Though these regions are in practice administered by their respective claimants, India has never formally recognized the accession of the areas claimed by Pakistan and China. Pakistan views the entire Kashmir region as ], and does not consider India's claim to it to be valid. An option favoured by many Kashmiris is independence, but both Pakistan and India are against this. | |||
The ] called the region ''Kasperia'', which has been identified with ''Kaspapyros'' of ] (] ]) and ''Kaspatyros'' of ] (3.102, 4.44). Kashmir is also believed to be the country meant by ]'s ''Kaspeiria''.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KScrDwAAQBAJ&q=kashmir+Ptolemy%27s+Kaspeiria.&pg=PT284|title=Who Killed Kasheer?|last=Khan|first=Ruhail|date=6 July 2017|publisher=Notion Press|isbn=9781947283107|language=en|access-date=1 November 2020|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140437/https://books.google.com/books?id=KScrDwAAQBAJ&q=kashmir+Ptolemy%27s+Kaspeiria.&pg=PT284|url-status=live}}</ref> The earliest text which directly mentions the name ''Kashmir'' is in '']'' written by the Sanskrit grammarian ] during the 5th century BC. Pāṇini called the people of Kashmir ''Kashmirikas''.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-lJI9avHstYC&pg=PA64 |title=India and Central Asia: Classical to Contemporary Periods |last=Kumāra |first=Braja Bihārī |date=2007 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |isbn=9788180694578 |page=64 |language=en |access-date=1 November 2020 |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140438/https://books.google.com/books?id=-lJI9avHstYC&pg=PA64 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Kashur">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bb-QBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 |title=Kashur The Kashmiri Speaking People |last=Raina |first=Mohini Qasba |date=13 November 2014 |publisher=Partridge Publishing Singapore |isbn=9781482899450 |page=11 |language=en |access-date=1 November 2020 |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140438/https://books.google.com/books?id=Bb-QBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QpjKpK7ywPIC&pg=PA59 |title=Kashmir and Its People: Studies in the Evolution of Kashmiri Society |last=Kaw |first=M. K. |date=2004 |publisher=APH Publishing |isbn=9788176485371 |language=en |access-date=1 November 2020 |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140438/https://books.google.com/books?id=QpjKpK7ywPIC&pg=PA59 |url-status=live }}</ref> Some other early references to Kashmir can also be found in ] in ] and in puranas like ], ], ] and ] and ].<ref name="Patanjali">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GfF1pTv0PgkC&pg=PA2 |title=Cultural Heritage of Kashmiri Pandits |last1=Toshakhānī |first1=Śaśiśekhara |last2=Warikoo |first2=Kulbhushan |date=2009 |publisher=Pentagon Press |isbn=9788182743984 |pages=2–3 |language=en |access-date=1 November 2020 |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140439/https://books.google.com/books?id=GfF1pTv0PgkC&pg=PA2 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
The rest of this article shall, for the sake of clarity, refer to the parts of Jammu and Kashmir administered by India, Pakistan and China as "Indian Kashmir", "Pakistani Kashmir", and "Chinese Kashmir" respectively. By this nomenclature, the word "Kashmir" in "Indian Kashmir" is used in a very general sense to refer to the state of Jammu and Kashmir. | |||
], the Buddhist scholar and Chinese traveller, called Kashmir ''kia-shi-milo'', while some other Chinese accounts referred to Kashmir as ''ki-pin'' (or Chipin or Jipin) and ''ache-pin''.<ref name="Kashur"/> | |||
Kashmir is one of the world's most well-known territorial disputes, and most Western made maps use a dotted-line to indicate the territory's uncertain boundaries. | |||
''Cashmeer'' is an archaic spelling of modern Kashmir, and in some countries{{which|date=August 2019}} it is still spelled this way. Kashmir is called ''Cachemire'' in French, ''Cachemira'' in Spanish, ''Caxemira'' in Portuguese, ''Caixmir'' in Catalan, ''Casmiria'' in Latin, ''Cașmir'' in Romanian, and ''Cashmir'' in ]. | |||
] | |||
In the ], Kashmir itself is known as ''Kasheer''.<ref>P. iv 'Kashmir Today' by Government, 1998</ref> | |||
==History== | |||
{{main|History of Kashmir}} | |||
===Early history=== | |||
===Terminology=== | |||
The name Kashmir came to be applied to this region as a result of the activities of the ] princes. The Dogras are a predominantly ] people in the area around ]. Their kings paid tribute to the ], and were part of the ] Empire that arose following the collapse of the ] Empire. Under the Sikhs, as feudatories, the Dogras sought and obtained permission to push into Kashmir and the North, into ]. ] led an expedition into ] in a failed effort to bring it to submission to the Sikh Empire, as a sub-feudatory of the Dogras. With the sudden collapse of the Sikh Empire before the English forces, the Dogras purchased from the British their independence, and thus also assured themselves of their feudal hold over the subsidiary kingdoms of Kashmir, Ladakh and the Emirates of the north. The Dogra kings who originally ruled only from Jammu, also began to operate in summer from Srinagar, the metropolis of Kashmir. As a result, the Dogra Kingdom developed into a sort of "Dual Monarchy", the Dogra Kingdom of Jammu and Kashmir. | |||
The Government of India and Indian sources refer to the territory under Pakistan control as "Pakistan-occupied Kashmir" ("POK").<ref name="Snedden 2013 p.2-3">{{cite book |first=Christopher |last=Snedden |author-link=Christopher Snedden |title=Kashmir: The Unwritten History |publisher=HarperCollins India |year=2013 |isbn=978-9350298985 |pages=2–3}}</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016082903/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-opinion/the-enigma-of-terminology/article5621801.ece |date=16 October 2015 }}, The Hindu, 27 January 2014.</ref> The Government of Pakistan and Pakistani sources refer to the portion of Kashmir administered by India as "Indian-occupied Kashmir" ("IOK") or "Indian-held Kashmir" (IHK);<ref>{{cite web |first= Ali |last= Zain |url= http://en.dailypakistan.com.pk/pakistan/pakistani-flag-hoisted-pro-freedom-slogans-chanted-in-indian-occupied-kashmir-567/ |title= Pakistani flag hoisted, pro-freedom slogans chanted in Indian Occupied Kashmir – Daily Pakistan Global |publisher= En.dailypakistan.com.pk |date= 13 September 2015 |access-date= 17 November 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151118114311/http://en.dailypakistan.com.pk/pakistan/pakistani-flag-hoisted-pro-freedom-slogans-chanted-in-indian-occupied-kashmir-567/ |archive-date= 18 November 2015 |url-status= dead |df= dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://dunyanews.tv/index.php/en/World/298421-Pakistani-flag-hoisted-once-again-in-Indian-Occupi |title= Pakistani flag hoisted once again in Indian Occupied Kashmir |website=Dunya News |date= 11 September 2015 |access-date=17 November 2015}}</ref> The terms "Pakistan-administered Kashmir" and "India-administered Kashmir" are often used by neutral sources for the parts of the Kashmir region controlled by each country.<ref>South Asia: fourth report of session 2006–07 by Great Britain: Parliament: House of Commons: Foreign Affairs Committee page 37</ref> | |||
Kashmir is a valley whose beauty has been proclaimed by many and stretches out at about 7,200 square kilometers (2,800 square miles) at an elevation of 1,675 meters (5,500 feet). A ] ruler who built the famed ] in Kashmir made the statement, " If heaven be on this earth, it must be here." It has a very ancient history and it was for a long time one of the centers of ] philosophical, literary and religious culture, a tradition still maintained by the native ] ] population. ], sculpture, music, dance, painting, and architecture have had a profound influence in Asia. History, however, has witnessed the quick depletion of numbers of Kashmiri Pandits following incipience of Islamic rule; it is estimated that today at least a half million have fled from their homes in Jammu and Kashmir to other parts of India. | |||
== History == | |||
===Partition, dispute and war=== | |||
{{For|a history of the region including the pre-19th century period|History of Kashmir|History of Gilgit-Baltistan|History of Ladakh}} | |||
In the first half of the first millennium, the Kashmir region became an important centre of ] and later of ]. During the 7th-14th centuries, the region was ruled by a series of Hindu dynasties,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Kashmir: region, Indian subcontinent|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=2022-05-09|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Kashmir-region-Indian-subcontinent|archive-date=13 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190813203817/https://www.britannica.com/place/Kashmir-region-Indian-subcontinent|url-status=live}} Quote: "A succession of Hindu dynasties ruled Kashmir until 1346, when it came under Muslim rule."</ref> and ] arose.<ref>Basham, A. L. (2005) ''The wonder that was India'', Picador. Pp. 572. {{ISBN|0-330-43909-X}}, p. 110.</ref> In 1320, ] became the first ] ruler of Kashmir, inaugurating the ].<ref name=imp-gazet-history>''Imperial Gazetteer of India, volume 15''. 1908. Oxford University Press, Oxford and London. pp. 93–95.</ref> The region was part of the ] from 1586 to 1751,<ref name=":1">{{citation|last=Puri|first=Balraj|title=5000 Years of Kashmir|date=June 2009|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5EWo7eszcbgC&q=end+of+muslim+rule+in+kashmir&pg=PA45|number=6|quote=It was emperor Akbar who brought an end to indigenous Kashmiri Muslim rule that had lasted 250 years. The watershed in Kashmiri history is not the beginning of the Muslim rule as is regarded in the rest of the subcontinent but the changeover from Kashmiri rule to a non-Kashmiri rule.|author-link=Balraj Puri|newspaper=Epilogue|volume=3|access-date=31 December 2016|pages=43–45|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140439/https://books.google.com/books?id=5EWo7eszcbgC&q=end+of+muslim+rule+in+kashmir&pg=PA45|url-status=live}}</ref> and thereafter, until 1820, of the Afghan ].<ref name=imp-gazet-history/> | |||
=== Sikh rule === | |||
In 1819, the ] passed from the control of the ] of ] to the conquering armies of the ] under ] of the ],<ref name="imperialgazet-gulabsingh">''Imperial Gazetteer of India, volume 15''. 1908. "Kashmir: History". pp. 94–95.</ref> thus ending four centuries of ] rule under the ] and the ] regime. As the Kashmiris had suffered under the Afghans, they initially welcomed the new Sikh rulers.<ref name=schofield_p5-6>{{Harvnb|Schofield, Kashmir in Conflict|2003|pp=5–6}}</ref> However, the Sikh governors turned out to be hard taskmasters, and Sikh rule was generally considered oppressive,<ref name=madan2008-p15>{{Harvnb|Madan, Kashmir, Kashmiris, Kashimiriyat|2008|p=15}}</ref> protected perhaps by the remoteness of Kashmir from the capital of the Sikh Empire in Lahore.<ref name=zutshi_p39-41>{{Harvnb|Zutshi, Languages of Belonging|2004|pp=39–41}}</ref> The Sikhs enacted a number of anti-Muslim laws,<ref name=zutshi_p39-41/> which included handing out death sentences for cow slaughter,<ref name=schofield_p5-6/> closing down the ] in Srinagar,<ref name=zutshi_p39-41/> and banning the ], the public Muslim call to prayer.<ref name=zutshi_p39-41/> Kashmir had also now begun to attract European visitors, several of whom wrote of the abject poverty of the vast Muslim peasantry and of the exorbitant taxes under the Sikhs.<ref name=schofield_p5-6/><ref name=":3">{{Cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0433 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620003316/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0433 |url-status=dead |archive-date=20 June 2018 |title=Kashmir|last1=Amin|first1=Tahir|last2=Schofield |first2=Victoria|encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World |quote=During both Sikh and Dogra rule, heavy taxation, forced work without wages (begār), discriminatory laws, and rural indebtedness were widespread among the largely illiterate Muslim population.}}</ref> High taxes, according to some contemporary accounts, had depopulated large tracts of the countryside, allowing only one-sixteenth of the cultivable land to be cultivated.<ref name=schofield_p5-6/> Many Kashmiri peasants migrated to the plains of the Punjab.<ref>{{Harvnb|Zutshi, Languages of Belonging|2004|p=}}: "Kashmiri histories emphasize the wretchedness of life for the common Kashmiri during Sikh rule. According to these, the peasantry became mired in poverty and migrations of Kashmiri peasants to the plains of the Punjab reached high proportions. Several European travelers' accounts from the period testify to and provide evidence for such assertions."</ref> However, after a famine in 1832, the Sikhs reduced the land tax to half the produce of the land and also began to offer interest-free loans to farmers;<ref name=zutshi_p39-41/> Kashmir became the second highest revenue earner for the Sikh Empire.<ref name=zutshi_p39-41/> During this time ]s became known worldwide, attracting many buyers, especially in the West.<ref name=zutshi_p39-41/> | |||
The ], which had been on the ascendant after the decline of the Mughal Empire, came under the sway of the Sikhs in 1770. Further in 1808, it was fully conquered by Maharaja Ranjit Singh. Gulab Singh, then a youngster in the House of Jammu, enrolled in the Sikh troops and, by distinguishing himself in campaigns, gradually rose in power and influence. In 1822, he was anointed as the Raja of Jammu.{{sfn|Panikkar|1930|p=10–11, 14–34}} Along with his able general ], he conquered and subdued ] (1821), ] (1821), Suru valley and ] (1835), ] (1834–1840), and ] (1840), thereby surrounding the ]. He became a wealthy and influential noble in the Sikh court.{{sfn|Schofield, Kashmir in Conflict|2003|pp=6–7}} | |||
] was accepted by ] of ]]] | |||
In ] (before Indian independence), British rulers compelled the ] of Jammu & Kashmir to lease for 60 years parts of his kingdom; parts which went to make up the new Province of the North-West Frontier, in a move designed to strengthen their northern boundaries, especially from ]. | |||
==Kashmir dispute== | |||
In ], the British dominion of India came to an end with the creation of two new nations, ] and ]. Each of the 565 Indian princely states had to decide which of the two new nations to join: ]-majority ] or ]-majority ]. ], which had a predominantly ] population, was one of these autonomous states, ruled by the ] (or ]) ]. Hari Singh preferred to remain independent and sought to avoid the stress placed on him by either ] and ] by playing each against the other. | |||
=== Princely state === | |||
{{Main|Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)}} | |||
], The first ] of ], which was founded in 1846.]] | |||
] | |||
In 1845, the ] broke out. According to '']:'' | |||
Not long after partition, Pakistani tribals (Kabailis) from ] invaded Kashmir. This invasion was aggravated by the mutiny of the army in the northern province of ], led by the two British officers put in charge by the ]. They seized and kidnapped the Dogra prince, who was unelected governor, and unilaterally declared the province a part of ]. | |||
<blockquote>Gulab Singh contrived to hold himself aloof till the ] (1846), when he appeared as a useful mediator and the trusted advisor of ]. Two treaties were concluded. By the first the ] (i.e. West Punjab) handed over to the British, as equivalent for one crore indemnity, the hill countries between the rivers Beas and Indus; by the second the British made over to Gulab Singh for 75 lakhs all the hilly or mountainous country situated to the east of the Indus and the west of the Ravi i.e. the Vale of Kashmir.<ref name=imperialgazet-gulabsingh/></blockquote> | |||
====Indo-Pakistani War of 1947==== | |||
Drafted by a treaty and a bill of sale, and constituted between 1820 and 1858, the Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu (as it was first called) combined disparate regions, religions, and ethnicities:<ref name=bowers>Bowers, Paul. 2004. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326182755/http://www.parliament.uk/commons/lib/research/rp2004/rp04-028.pdf |date=26 March 2009 }}, International Affairs and Defence, House of Commons Library, United Kingdom.</ref> to the east, Ladakh was ethnically and culturally ] and its inhabitants practised ]; to the south, Jammu had a mixed population of Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs. In the heavily populated central Kashmir valley, the population was overwhelmingly ]—mostly ], however, there was also a small but influential Hindu minority, the ] ]. To the northeast, sparsely populated ] had a population ethnically related to that of Ladakh, but which practised ]. To the north, also sparsely populated, ] was an area of diverse, mostly ''Shia'' groups, and, to the west, ] was populated mostly by Muslims of a different ethnicity than that of the Kashmir valley.<ref name=bowers/> After the ], in which Kashmir sided with the British, and the subsequent assumption of ] by Great Britain, the ] of Kashmir came under the ] of the ]. | |||
{{main|Indo-Pakistani War of 1947}} | |||
In the British census of India of 1941, Kashmir registered a Muslim majority population of 77%, a Hindu population of 20% and a sparse population of Buddhists and Sikhs comprising the remaining 3%.<ref name=bose-sumantra-2005-p15-17>{{Harvnb|Bose, Roots of Conflict, Paths to Peace|2003|pp=15–17}}</ref> That same year, ], a ] journalist wrote: "The poverty of the Muslim masses is appalling. ... Most are landless laborers, working as serfs for absentee landlords ... Almost the whole brunt of official corruption is borne by the Muslim masses."<ref>Quoted in {{Harvnb|Bose, Roots of Conflict, Paths to Peace|2003|pp=15–17}}</ref> Under Hindu rule, Muslims faced hefty taxation and discrimination in the legal system, and were forced into labor without any wages.<ref>{{citation |last1=Amin |first1=Tahir |last2=Schofield |first2=Victoria |chapter=Kashmir |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World |year=2009 |chapter-url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0433 |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=20 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620003316/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0433 |url-status=live }}</ref> Conditions in the princely state caused a significant migration of people from the Kashmir Valley to the Punjab of British India.<ref name="Bose2013">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=reiwAAAAQBAJ |title=Transforming India |date=2013 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-72820-2 |pages=211 |author=Sumantra Bose |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140440/https://books.google.com/books?id=reiwAAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> For almost a century, until the census, a small Hindu elite had ruled over a vast and impoverished Muslim peasantry.<ref name=bose-sumantra-2005-p15-17/><ref name=talbot-singh-p54>{{Harvnb|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=54}}</ref> Driven into docility by chronic indebtedness to landlords and moneylenders, having no education besides, nor awareness of rights,<ref name=bose-sumantra-2005-p15-17/> the Muslim peasants had no political representation until the 1930s.<ref name=talbot-singh-p54/> | |||
The invading ] Pakistani forces made rapid advances into ] (] sector). There were reports of widespread looting, abduction, rape, killings, and other atrocities committed by these tribal invaders on the population of parts of Kashmir they occupied. This forced Maharaja Hari Singh to ask the ] to intervene and put a halt to these atrocities. However, the Government of India pointed out that India and Pakistan had signed an agreement of non-intervention (maintenance of the "status quo") in ]; and although tribal invaders from Pakistan had entered Jammu and Kashmir, there was, until that point of time, no iron-clad legal evidence to unequivocally prove that the Government of Pakistan was officially involved, so it would be illegal for India to unilaterally intervene (in an open, official capacity) unless ] officially joined the ], at which point it would be India's unalienable legal and moral right to intervene militarily to defend the lives, honour, and dignity of its own people, and their cultural heritage, property, and territory. | |||
===1947 and 1948=== | |||
The Maharaja would have preferred to stay independent to maintain his power and influence, but desperately needed ]'s help to protect his people and their property. However, ] refused to intervene unofficially. Before the arrival of Pakistani tribal invaders and Pakistani irregulars into ], Maharaja ] completed negotiations for acceding ] to ] and receiving military aid in return. The agreement which ceded ] to ] was signed by the ] and ].{{ref|lord}} | |||
{{Further|Kashmir conflict|Timeline of the Kashmir conflict|1947 Poonch Rebellion|Indo-Pakistani War of 1947|1947 Jammu massacres|1947 Mirpur massacre}} | |||
] | |||
Ranbir Singh's grandson ], who had ascended the throne of Kashmir in 1925, was the reigning monarch in 1947 at the conclusion of British rule of the subcontinent and the subsequent ] of the British ] into the newly independent ] and the ]. According to ]'s ''History of India'', <blockquote>Kashmir was neither as large nor as old an independent state as ]; it had been created rather off-handedly by the British after the first defeat of the Sikhs in 1846, as a reward to a former official who had sided with the British. The Himalayan kingdom was connected to India through a district of the Punjab, but its population was 77 per cent Muslim and it shared a boundary with Pakistan. Hence, it was anticipated that the maharaja would accede to Pakistan when the British paramountcy ended on 14–15 August. When he hesitated to do this, Pakistan launched a guerrilla onslaught meant to frighten its ruler into submission. Instead the Maharaja appealed to ]<ref>Viscount Louis Mountbatten, the last Viceroy of British India, stayed on in independent India from 1947 to 1948, serving as the first Governor-General of the Union of India.</ref> for assistance, and the ] agreed on the condition that the ruler accede to India. Indian soldiers entered Kashmir and drove the Pakistani-sponsored irregulars from all but a small section of the state. The United Nations was then invited to mediate the quarrel. The UN mission insisted that the opinion of Kashmiris must be ascertained, while India insisted that no referendum could occur until all of the state had been cleared of irregulars.<ref name=stein>Stein, Burton. 2010. ''A History of India''. Oxford University Press. 432 pages. {{ISBN|978-1-4051-9509-6}}. Page 358.</ref></blockquote> | |||
Pakistan claims that the Maharaja acted under duress, and that the accession of Kashmir to India is invalidated by a previous agreement between India and Pakistan, to maintain the "status quo". ] counters that the invasion of Kashmir by tribals, aided and instigated by ], and reinforced by the ], had rendered the agreement null and void. India also believes that the accession of ] to India was not just the decision of the ruler ], but reflected the popular will of the people living in ] at that time. This is because of the fact that ], a prominent muslim and the leader of the popular political party of Kashmir, the ] favoured Kashmir joining ]. | |||
In the last days of 1948, a ceasefire was agreed under UN auspices. However, since the ] demanded by the UN was never conducted, relations between India and Pakistan soured,<ref name=stein/> and eventually led to two more wars over Kashmir in ] and ]. | |||
The resulting war, the ], lasted until ], when India moved the issue to ] to ask Pakistan to vacate the occupied Kashmir. The ] imposed a cease-fire, and mandated a ] among the entire Kashmiri population, subject to the withdrawal of all Pakistani forces, regular and irregular, and the plebiscite to be held under impartial observers. | |||
{{anchor|Current status and political divisions}} | |||
====Aftermath of war==== | |||
===Current status and political divisions=== | |||
Pakistan, however, refused to abide by this resolution. Pakistan's recalcitrance was strengthened by its alliance with USA against the Soviet Union, even as India allied with the USSR. | |||
India has control of about half the area of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, which comprises ] and ], while Pakistan controls a third of the region, divided into two provinces, ] and ]. ] and ] are administered by ] as ]. They formed a single state until 5 August 2019, when the state was bifurcated and its ] was revoked.<ref>{{cite news|title=Article 370: What happened with Kashmir and why it matters|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-49234708|publisher=]|date=6 August 2019|access-date=2020-11-30|archive-date=29 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029201641/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-49234708|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
A later resolution mandated a joint withdrawal, but it was never implemented. | |||
According to '']'': | |||
The Treaty of Accession signed by Maharaja Hari Singh and his heir, the Sardar-e-Riyasat K. Singh Dogra, was ratified by the popular parliament of the kingdom, dominated by the popular political party of Kashmir, the ] led by ]. The Indian Government negotiated an autonomous status for the kingdom, and it was the only Indian province permitted to retain its own constitution, flag, anthem, etc. | |||
<blockquote>Although there was a clear Muslim majority in Kashmir before the 1947 partition and its economic, cultural, and geographic contiguity with the Muslim-majority area of the Punjab (in Pakistan) could be convincingly demonstrated, the political developments during and after the partition resulted in a division of the region. Pakistan was left with territory that, although basically Muslim in character, was sparsely populated, relatively inaccessible, and economically underdeveloped. The largest Muslim group, situated in the Valley of Kashmir and estimated to number more than half the population of the entire region, lay in India-administered territory, with its former outlets via the ] route blocked.<ref name="britannica-kashmir" /><ref name=britannica-intro/></blockquote> | |||
Pakistan still asks for a plebiscite in Kashmir under the UN. However, India is no longer willing to allow a plebiscite, mainly because of the fact that the large parts of Kashmir that have been under Pakistani control since 1948 have been assimilated into Pakistan, as part of the Pakistani province called "]". There are reports that since 1948, over the last 56 years, the Pakistani government has been settling non-Kashmiris from other parts of Pakistan (especially retired Pakistani Army personnel) in those areas, completely changing the demographics of the region, to the extent that the original (1948) inhabitants of Kashmir are now in a minority in their own homeland. The part of ] that has been kept "independent", the so-called "]", is only a tiny sliver of land, a very tiny part of the parts of the original kingdom of Jammu and Kashmir that Pakistan occupied in 1948. On the other hand, ] has been protected from outside influence from other parts of India under ] of the ], which, for example, makes it illegal for a non-Kashmiri Indian to acquire property and settle in Jammu and Kashmir. (Kashmiri Indians are allowed to settle in any part of India). | |||
The eastern region of the former princely state of Kashmir is also involved in a boundary dispute that began in the late 19th century and continues into the 21st. Although some boundary agreements were signed between Great Britain, Afghanistan and Russia over the northern borders of Kashmir, China never accepted these agreements, and China's official position has not changed following the ] that established the People's Republic of China. By the mid-1950s the ] had entered the north-east portion of Ladakh.<ref name="britannica-kashmir">Kashmir. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 27 March 2007, from . {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080113042440/https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-214222 |date=13 January 2008 }}</ref> | |||
The ceasefire line is known as the ''']''' (dotted line) and is the pseudo-border between India and Pakistan in most of the Kashmir region. | |||
] | |||
<blockquote>By 1956–57 they had completed a military road through the ] area to provide better communication between ] and western ]. India's belated discovery of this road led to border clashes between the two countries that culminated in the ] of October 1962.<ref name="britannica-kashmir" /></blockquote> | |||
====Sino-Indian War==== | |||
] from ]]] | |||
The region is divided amongst three countries in a ]: Pakistan controls the northwest portion (Northern Areas and Kashmir), India controls the central and southern portion (Jammu and Kashmir) and Ladakh, and the People's Republic of ] controls the northeastern portion (Aksai Chin and the Trans-Karakoram Tract). India controls the majority of the ] area, including the ] passes, whilst Pakistan controls the lower territory just southwest of the Saltoro Ridge. India controls {{cvt|101338|km2|sqmi}} of the disputed territory, Pakistan controls {{cvt|85846|km2|sqmi}}, and the People's Republic of China controls the remaining {{cvt|37555|km2|sqmi|0}}. | |||
Jammu and Azad Kashmir lie south and west of the ], and are under Indian and Pakistani control respectively. These are populous regions. Gilgit-Baltistan, formerly known as the ''Northern Areas'', is a group of territories in the extreme north, bordered by the ], the western ], the ], and the ] ranges. With its administrative centre in the town of ], the Northern Areas cover an area of {{convert|72,971|km2}} and have an estimated population approaching 1 million (10 ]s). | |||
{{main|Sino-Indian War}} | |||
Ladakh is between the ] mountain range in the north and the main Great Himalayas to the south.<ref name="Ladakh">{{Citation |title=Ladakh: The Land and the People |last=Jina |first=Prem Singh |year=1996 |publisher=Indus Publishing |isbn=978-81-7387-057-6 }}</ref> Capital towns of the region are ] and ]. It is under Indian administration and was part of the state of Jammu and Kashmir until 2019. It is one of the most sparsely populated regions in the area and is mainly inhabited by people of ] and Tibetan descent.<ref name="Ladakh" /> Aksai Chin is a vast high-altitude ] of salt that reaches altitudes up to {{convert|5000|m|ft}}. Geographically part of the ], Aksai Chin is referred to as the Soda Plain. The region is almost uninhabited, and has no permanent settlements. | |||
In 1962, ] invaded a totally unprepared India using an ongoing minor border dispute as the "causus belli" even though there was no pre-existing Chinese claim on any part of Kashmir ]. China had the upper hand throughout the war, resulting in the Chinese occupation of the region called ], which continues to date, as well as a strip along the eastern border. In addition to these lands, another smaller area, the ], was ceded to China by ] in ] in exchange of military assistance, including clandestine proliferation of nuclear and ballestic technology by a "Nuclear Weapon State" (China) to Pakistan, a non-signatory of Nuclear Proliferation Treay (NPT). The line that separates India from China in this region is known as the '']''. | |||
Though these regions are in practice administered by their respective claimants, neither India nor Pakistan has formally recognised the accession of the areas claimed by the other. India claims those areas, including the area "ceded" to China by Pakistan in the ] in 1963, are a part of its territory, while Pakistan claims the entire region excluding Aksai Chin and Trans-Karakoram Tract. The two countries have fought several declared wars over the territory. The ] established the rough boundaries of today, with Pakistan holding roughly one-third of Kashmir, and India one-half, with a dividing ] established by the United Nations. The ] resulted in a stalemate and a UN-negotiated ceasefire. | |||
====1965 and 1971 Wars==== | |||
==Geography== | |||
In ] and ], heavy fighting again broke out between India and Pakistan. The ] resulted in a defeat of Pakistan in ] (]), and the capturing of 90,000 Pakistani soldiers by India in that region. The ] was signed in ] between India and Pakistan. By this treaty, both countries agreed to settle all issues by peaceful means and mutual discussions in the framework of the UN Charter. The treaty is often viewed as having cemented the LoC as a permanent border between the two nations. | |||
] of Kashmir]] | |||
], a peak in the ] range, is the ]]] | |||
The Kashmir region lies between latitudes ] and ], and longitudes ] and ]. It has an area of {{cvt|68000|mi2|km2}}.<ref name=drew>{{Cite book|last=]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_fVlAAAAcAAJ|title=Jummoo and Kashmir Territories |date=1875 |publisher=Stanford|pages=3–6|access-date=1 November 2020|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140440/https://books.google.com/books?id=_fVlAAAAcAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> It is bordered to the north and east by China (Xinjiang and Tibet), to the northwest by ] (Wakhan Corridor), to the west by ] (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Punjab) and to the south by ] (Himachal Pradesh and Punjab).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tamang|first=Jyoti Prakash |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EimHj9veADgC&pg=PA2|title=Himalayan Fermented Foods: Microbiology, Nutrition, and Ethnic Values |date=2009-08-17|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4200-9325-4|access-date=28 December 2022|archive-date=28 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221228103212/https://books.google.com/books?id=EimHj9veADgC&pg=PA2|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
The topography of Kashmir is mostly mountainous. It is traversed mainly by the ]s. The Himalayas terminate in the western boundary of Kashmir at ]. Kashmir is traversed by three rivers namely ], ] and ]. These river basins divide the region into three valleys separated by high mountain ranges. The Indus valley forms the north and north-eastern portion of the region which include bare and desolate areas of ] and Ladakh. The upper portion of the Jhelum valley forms the proper Vale of Kashmir surrounded by high mountain ranges. The ] forms the southern portion of the Kashmir region with its denuded hills towards the south. It includes almost all of the ]. High altitude lakes are frequent at high elevations. Lower down in the Vale of Kashmir there are many freshwater lakes and large areas of swamplands which include ], ] and ] near ].<ref name=flowers>{{Cite book|last=B. O. Coventry|title=Wild flowers of Kashmir |publisher=Raithby, Lawrence & Co.|place=London|year=1923 |url=http://archive.org/details/WildFlowersOfKashmir}}</ref> | |||
===Rise of terrorism=== | |||
{{merge|Terrorism in Kashmir}} | |||
In ], a widespread armed insurgency started in Kashmir, which continues to this day. According to Indian views, a large part of these insurgents are Pakistani-trained terrorists. Letters, pictures, identity cards, and other documents recovered by the Indian Army from several captured insurgents and from the bodies of several dead insurgents since widespread insurgency started in ], have confirmed that a large number of these men have come from ], ], ], ], and various other places where ] has gained ground, or ] or religious war in the name of Islam (]) has been going on for some time.<!--Source?--> The end of the Soviet occupation in Afghanistan in 1988 also resulted in many of these unemployed jihadi fighters entering Kashmir to continue their religious terrorism. | |||
] map of Kashmir and its surrounding area and rivers]] | |||
However, most of the insurgents operating in Kashmir are of Kashmiri origin. Several of them, after being captured by the ], have confessed that they were contacted by Pakistani recruiters and went to Pakistan for arms training. The economy of Kashmir, dependent on ], has been badly damaged due to the ongoing insurgency. | |||
To the north and northeast, beyond the Great Himalayas, the region is traversed by the ] mountains. To the northwest lies the Hindu Kush mountain range. The upper Indus River separates the Himalayas from the Karakoram.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Western Himalayas {{!}} mountains, Asia |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/western-Himalayas |access-date=2020-10-29 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |archive-date=28 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171228233852/https://www.britannica.com/place/western-Himalayas|url-status=live}}</ref> The Karakoram is the most heavily glaciated part of the world outside the polar regions. The ] at {{cvt|76|km|mi}} and the ] at {{cvt|63|km|mi}} rank as the world's second and third longest glaciers outside the polar regions. Karakoram has four ] mountain peaks with ], the second highest peak in the world at {{cvt|8611|m|ft}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-longest-non-polar-glaciers-in-the-world.html|title=Longest non polar glaciers in the world|website=Worldatlas|date=25 April 2017|access-date=2020-10-27|archive-date=31 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031015000/https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-longest-non-polar-glaciers-in-the-world.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2013-12-17|title=The Eight-Thousanders |url=https://www.earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/8000MeterPeaks|access-date=2020-10-27|url-status=live |website=www.earthobservatory.nasa.gov |archive-date=3 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170503184334/https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/8000MeterPeaks/}}</ref> | |||
] | |||
Pakistani government calls these insurgents, a large fraction of whom are of foreign origin, "Kashmiri freedom fighters" and claims that it gives only moral and diplomatic support to these insurgents. Violence in Kashmir markedly falls during the winter when the mountain passes leading from Pakistan to Indian Kashmir become inaccessible due to heavy snowfall, making it difficult for insurgents to cross into Indian occupied Kashmir. | |||
The Indus River system forms the ] of the Kashmir region. The river enters the region in Ladakh at its southeastern corner from the ], and flows northwest to run a course through the entire Ladakh and Gilgit-Baltistan. Almost all the rivers originating in these region are part of the Indus river system.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Indus River {{!}} Definition, Length, Map, History, & Facts|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Indus-River|access-date=2020-10-27|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|archive-date=7 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200507163743/https://www.britannica.com/place/Indus-River|url-status=live}}</ref> After reaching the end of the Great Himalayan range, the Indus turns a corner and flows southwest into the Punjab plains. The Jhelum and Chenab rivers also follow a course roughly parallel to this, and join the Indus river in southern Punjab plains in Pakistan. | |||
The geographical features of the Kashmir region differ considerably from one part to another. The lowest part of the region consists of the plains of Jammu at the southwestern corner, which continue into the plains of Punjab at an elevation of below 1000 feet. Mountains begin at 2000 feet, then raising to 3000–4000 feet in the "Outer Hills", a rugged country with ridges and long narrow valleys. Next within the tract lie the Middle Mountains which are 8000–10,000 feet in height with ramifying valleys. Adjacent to these hills are the lofty ] ranges (14000–15000 feet) which divide the drainage of the ] and ] from that of the Indus. Beyond this range lies a wide tract of mountainous country of 17000–22000 feet in Ladakh and ].<ref name=drew/>{{Clarify|reason=It is unclear how all these ranges relate to the geography; where is the Kashmir Valley in this system?|date=April 2021}} | |||
====Cross-border infiltration==== | |||
===Climate=== | |||
The border and the ] separating Indian and Pakistani Kashmir passes through some exceptionally difficult terrain. The world's highest battleground, the ] is a part of this difficult-to-man boundary. It is not feasible, and perhaps not even physically possible, for ] to place enough men to guard all sections of the border, throughout the various seasons of the year; one of the main reasons for the existance of "cross-border terrorism" in the region. Large sections of the International Border and ] are left totally unguarded for large portions of the year, making it possible for terrorists to cross undetected. This is why the ] of ] was possible.<!--Source?--> | |||
{{climate chart | |||
| Srinagar | |||
| −2 | 7 | 48 | |||
| −0.7 | 8.2 | 68 | |||
| 3.4 | 14.1 | 121 | |||
| 7.9 | 20.5 | 85 | |||
| 10.8 | 24.5 | 68 | |||
| 14.9 | 29.6 | 39 | |||
| 18.1 | 30.1 | 62 | |||
| 17.5 | 29.6 | 76 | |||
| 12.1 | 27.4 | 28 | |||
| 5.8 | 22.4 | 33 | |||
| 0.9 | 15.1 | 28 | |||
| −1.5 | 8.2 | 54 | |||
| float = left | |||
| source = HKO <ref name = HKO>{{cite web | |||
| url = http://www.hko.gov.hk/wxinfo/climat/world/eng/asia/india/srinagar_e.htm | |||
| title = Climatological Information for Srinagar, India | |||
| publisher = ] | |||
| access-date = 2012-06-09 | |||
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120406095303/http://www.hko.gov.hk/wxinfo/climat/world/eng/asia/india/srinagar_e.htm | |||
| archive-date = 6 April 2012 | |||
| url-status = live | |||
}}</ref> }} | |||
Kashmir has a different climate for every region owing to the great variation in altitude. The temperatures ranges from the tropical heat of the Punjab summer to the intensity of the cold which keeps the perpetual snow on the mountains. Jammu Division, excluding the upper parts of the Chenab Valley, features a humid subtropical climate. The Vale of Kashmir has a moderate climate. The ] and some parts of ] features a semi-Tibetan climate. While as the other parts of Gilgit-Baltistan and Ladakh have Tibetan climate which is considered as almost rainless climate.<ref name=drew/><ref>{{Cite book|last=]|url=http://archive.org/details/anceintgeographyofkashmirsteinm.a._667_j|title=Ancient Geography Of Kashmir|date=1899|publisher=Kamala Dara|pages=257–269}}</ref> | |||
The southwestern Kashmir which includes much of the Jammu province and Muzaffarabad falls within the reach of Indian monsoon. The Pir Panjal Range acts as an effective barrier and blocks these monsoon tracts from reaching the main Kashmir Valley and the Himalayan slopes. These areas of the region receive much of their precipitation from the wind currents of the Arabian Sea. The Himalayan slope and the Pir Panjal witness greatest snow melting from March until June. These variations in snow melt and rainfall have led to destructive inundations of the main valley. One instance of such Kashmir flood of a larger proportion is recorded in the 12th-century book '']''. A single cloudburst in July 1935 caused the upper Jehlum river level to rise 11 feet.<ref>{{Cite book|author2=]|author=]|url=http://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.3233|title=Studies on the ice age in India and associated human cultures|publisher=Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1939}}</ref> The ] inundated the Kashmir city of Srinagar and submerged hundreds of other villages.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2014-09-07|title=India Pakistan floods: Kashmir city of Srinagar inundated|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-29100226|access-date=2020-11-01|archive-date=11 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111183926/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-29100226|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
] has repeatedly claimed that by constructing a fence along the ], India is violating the ]. However, the construction of the fence has helped decrease armed infiltration into ]. | |||
==Flora and fauna== | |||
In ] Pakistani President and Army Chief General ] promised to check ''cross-border terrorism'' and ] into ]. | |||
{{multiple image|align=right|direction=horizontal|total_width=450|image1=Mount_Harmukh.JPG|caption1=Alpine flowers at ] below ] in the northwestern ]|image2=Zaniskari_Horse_in_Ladhak,_Jammu_and_kashmir.jpg|caption2=The ] is a breed of horse in ], well adapted to the ] Kashmiri environment}} | |||
{{multiple image|align=right|direction=vertical|total-length=450|image1=8. Deosai Plains.jpg|caption1=Shepherding in the ]|image2=Snow Leopard in Naltar Valley.jpg |caption2=A female snow leopard which was rescued in 2012 from a partly frozen river stream in the Wadkhun area of ] in the ], now in the ]}} | |||
Kashmir has a recorded forest area of {{convert|20230|km2|mi2}} along with some ] and ]. The forests vary according to the climatic conditions and the altitude. Kashmir forests range from the ] in the foothills of Jammu and ], to the ] throughout the Vale of Kashmir and to the ] and high altitude meadows in Gilgit-Baltistan and Ladakh.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Dar|first1=Ghulam Hassan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DyPTDwAAQBAJ|title=Biodiversity of the Himalaya: Jammu and Kashmir State|last2=Khuroo|first2=Anzar A.|date=2020-02-26|publisher=Springer Nature|isbn=978-981-329-174-4|pages=193–200|access-date=1 November 2020|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140440/https://books.google.com/books?id=DyPTDwAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Bari Naik|first=Abdul|title=Tourism Potential in Ecological Zones and Future Prospects of Tourism: in Kashmir Valley |date=22 April 2016|publisher=LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing (April 22, 2016)|isbn=978-3659878626|pages=48}}</ref> | |||
====Human rights abuse==== | |||
The Kashmir region has four well defined zones of vegetation in the tree growth, due to the difference in elevation. The tropical forests up to 1500 m, are known as the Phulai (''Acacia modesta'') and Olive (Olea cuspid ata) Zone. There occur semi-deciduous species of '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'' and '']'' and '']'' are found at higher elevations. The temperate zone between (1,500–3,500 m) is referred as the Chir Pine (Finns longifolia). This zone is dominated by ]s (''Quercus'' spp.) and '']'' spp. The Blue Pine (Finns excelsa) Zone with '']'', '']'' and '']'' occur at elevations between 2,800 and 3,500 m. The Birch (Betula utilis) Zone has Herbaceous genera of ], ], ], ], ] and ] interspersed with dry dwarf alpine scrubs of ], ], ] and ] are prevalent in alpine grasslands at 3,500 m and above.<ref name=flowers/><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Manish|first1=Kumar|last2=Pandit |first2=Maharaj K. |date=2018-11-07|title=Geophysical upheavals and evolutionary diversification of plant species in the Himalaya|journal=PeerJ |volume=6|pages=e5919 |doi=10.7717/peerj.5919|issn=2167-8359|pmc=6228543 |pmid=30425898|doi-access=free}}</ref> | |||
Kashmir is referred as a beauty spot of the medicinal and herbaceous flora in the Himalayas.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kaul|first=S. N. |url=http://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.509480 |title=Forest Products Of Jumma and Kashmir|date=1928 |publisher=Kashmir Pratap Stream Press,srinagar|pages=vii}}</ref> There are hundreds of different species of wild flowers recorded in the alpine meadows of the region.<ref name=flowers/> The ] and the ]s of Srinagar built in the ]s grow 300 breeds of flora and 60 varieties of tulips respectively. The later is considered as the largest Tulip Garden of Asia.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Experts |first=Arihant |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NhrzDwAAQBAJ&q=300+flora|title=Know Your State Jammu and Kashmir|date=2019-06-04 |publisher=Arihant Publications India limited|isbn=978-93-131-6916-1|language=en|access-date=1 November 2020|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140440/https://books.google.com/books?id=NhrzDwAAQBAJ&q=300+flora|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Around the world, tulips turn hillsides into colorful patchwork quilts |newspaper=] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/capital-weather-gang/wp/2017/04/18/around-the-world-tulips-turn-hillsides-into-colorful-patchwork-quilts/|access-date=2020-10-29|archive-date=2 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201102031353/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/capital-weather-gang/wp/2017/04/18/around-the-world-tulips-turn-hillsides-into-colorful-patchwork-quilts/|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
Although matters have improved in ] following the opening of discussion between ] and ] ], the influential independent human rights agency ] has said in its most recent report, released on May 24 2005, that violations continue, although they are unable to determine whether they have decreased because of security-related controls. The report, however, praised the efforts led by the ]-provincial government headed by ], for checking human rights voilations. | |||
Kashmir region is home to rare species of animals, many of which are protected by sanctuaries and reserves. The ] in the Valley holds the last viable population of ] ''(Hangul)'' and the largest population of ] in Asia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jkwildlife.com/pdf/pub/final_management_plan_DNP_06082011.pdf |title=MANAGEMENT PLAN (2011-2016) DACHIGAM NATIONAL PARK|publisher=jkwildlife.com|access-date=2020-10-30|archive-date=22 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122030329/http://www.jkwildlife.com/pdf/pub/final_management_plan_DNP_06082011.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> In Gilgit-Baltistan the ] is designated to protect the largest population of ]s in the western Himalayas.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Nawaz|first1=Muhammad Ali|last2=Swenson|first2=Jon E. |last3=Zakaria|first3=Vaqar|date=2008-09-01|title=Pragmatic management increases a flagship species, the Himalayan brown bears, in Pakistan's Deosai National Park|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320708002206|journal=Biological Conservation|language=en|volume=141|issue=9|pages=2230–2241|doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2008.06.012|bibcode=2008BCons.141.2230N |issn=0006-3207}}</ref> ]s are found in high density In the ] in Ladakh.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cCTPP2xUUpkC&q=hemis+national+park+snow+leopards&pg=PA4|title=Making a Difference: Dossier on Community Engagement on Nature Based Tourism in India|publisher=EQUATIONS|language=en|access-date=1 November 2020|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140441/https://books.google.com/books?id=cCTPP2xUUpkC&q=hemis+national+park+snow+leopards&pg=PA4|url-status=live}}</ref> The region is home to ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ]. At least 711 bird species are recorded in the valley alone with 31 classified as globally threatened species.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Jammu and Kashmir bird checklist - Avibase - Bird Checklists of the World|url=https://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/checklist.jsp?region=INwhjk&list=howardmoore|access-date=2020-10-20|website=avibase.bsc-eoc.org|archive-date=22 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201022004158/https://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/checklist.jsp?region=INwhjk&list=howardmoore|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Lawrence|first=Walter R. (Walter Roper) |url=http://archive.org/details/valleyofkashmir00lawr|title=The valley of Kashmír|date=1895|place=London|publisher=H. Frowde |pages=106–160}}</ref> | |||
===Reasons behind the dispute=== | |||
==Demographics== | |||
Ever since the ] in ], both ] and ] have claims over Kashmir. These claims are centered on historical incidents and on religious affilitions of the Kashmiri people. | |||
=== Colonial era === | |||
In the 1901 Census of the British ], the population of the princely state of Kashmir and Jammu was 2,905,578. Of these, 2,154,695 (74.16%) were Muslims, 689,073 (23.72%) Hindus, 25,828 (0.89%) Sikhs, and 35,047 (1.21%) Buddhists (implying 935 (0.032%) others). | |||
The Hindus were found mainly in Jammu, where they constituted a little less than 60% of the population.<ref name=imperialgazetteerkashmir>''Imperial Gazetteer of India, volume 15''. 1908. Oxford University Press, Oxford and London. pp. 99–102.</ref> In the Kashmir Valley, the Hindus represented "524 in every 10,000 of the population (''i.e.'' 5.24%), and in the frontier ''wazarats'' of Ladhakh and Gilgit only 94 out of every 10,000 persons (0.94%)."<ref name=imperialgazetteerkashmir/> In the same Census of 1901, in the Kashmir Valley, the total population was recorded to be 1,157,394, of which the Muslim population was 1,083,766, or 93.6% and the Hindu population 60,641.<ref name=imperialgazetteerkashmir/> Among the Hindus of Jammu province, who numbered 626,177 (or 90.87% of the Hindu population of the princely state), the most important castes recorded in the census were "] (186,000), the ]s (167,000), the ] (48,000) and the Thakkars (93,000)."<ref name=imperialgazetteerkashmir/> | |||
====Indian view==== | |||
In the 1911 Census of the British Indian Empire, the total population of Kashmir and Jammu had increased to 3,158,126. Of these, 2,398,320 (75.94%) were Muslims, 696,830 (22.06%) Hindus, 31,658 (1%) Sikhs, and 36,512 (1.16%) Buddhists. In the last census of British India in 1941, the total population of Kashmir and Jammu (which as a result of the Second World War, was estimated from the 1931 census) was 3,945,000. Of these, the total Muslim population was 2,997,000 (75.97%), the Hindu population was 808,000 (20.48%), and the Sikh 55,000 (1.39%).<ref name=brush>{{cite journal |last1=Brush |first1=J. E. |year=1949 |title=The Distribution of Religious Communities in India |journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers |volume=39 |issue=2| pages=81–98 |doi=10.1080/00045604909351998 |issn = 0004-5608 }}</ref> | |||
The Indian claim centers on the agreement of the Maharaja to sign over Kashmir to India through the Instrument of Accession. It also focuses on India's stated secular ideology, an ideology that is not meant to factor religion into governance of major policy and thus imagines it irrelevant in a boundary dispute.<!--Source?--> | |||
The ]s, the only Hindus of the Kashmir valley, who had stably constituted approximately 4 to 5% of the population of the valley during Dogra rule (1846–1947), and 20% of whom had left the Kashmir valley to other parts of India in the 1950s,{{sfn|Zutshi, Languages of Belonging|2004|p=318|ps=: Since a majority of the landlords were Hindu, the (land) reforms (of 1950) led to a mass exodus of Hindus from the state. ... The unsettled nature of Kashmir's accession to India, coupled with the threat of economic and social decline in the face of the land reforms, led to increasing insecurity among the Hindus in Jammu, and among Kashmiri Pandits, 20 per cent of whom had emigrated from the Valley by 1950.}} underwent a complete ] in the 1990s due to the ]. According to a number of authors, approximately 100,000 of the total Kashmiri Pandit population of 140,000 left the valley during that decade.{{sfn|Bose, The Challenge in Kashmir|1997|p=71}}{{sfn|Rai, Hindu Rulers, Muslim Subjects|2004|p=286}}{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p=274|ps=: The Hindu Pandits, a small but influential elite community who had secured a favourable position, first under the maharajas, and then under the successive Congress regimes, and proponents of a distinctive Kashmiri culture that linked them to India, felt under siege as the uprising gathered force. Of a population of some 140,000, perhaps 100,000 Pandits fled the state after 1990; their cause was quickly taken up by the Hindu right.}} Other authors have suggested a higher figure for the exodus, ranging from the entire population of over 150 thousand,{{sfn|Malik, Kashmir: Ethnic Conflict, International Dispute|2005|p=318}} to 190 thousand of a total Pandit population of 200 thousand (200,000),{{sfn|Madan, Kashmir, Kashmiris, Kashimiriyat|2008|p=25}} to a number as high as 300 thousand (300,000).<ref>{{Cite web|title=South Asia :: India — The World Factbook - Central Intelligence Agency|website=www.cia.gov|date=14 February 2022|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/india/|access-date=24 January 2021|url-status=live|archive-date=18 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210318202107/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/india}}</ref> | |||
India has a large ] population totaling almost 170 million. According to the Indian viewpoint, these Indian Muslims rejected ] call for ] on religious lines in ], and chose to stay in Secular India with their ], ], ], ], ], ], and ] brothers and sisters rather than go to the new-born Islamic country of Pakistan.<!--Source?--> This argument is backed by the fact that India has the world's second largest population of muslims, and its minorities are far more integreted with muslims and sikhs holding positions of power and influence in india, most notably the president an prime minister. | |||
{| class="wikitable sortable" | |||
To India, Pakistan's claim to Kashmir based on no better reason than the fact that Kashmir has a Muslim majority population is insupportable; even more so because in ], when Kashmir still had a Muslim majority population, its popular leader, ] of its dominant political party, the ], had unequivocally said that Kashmir would choose to join India, not Pakistan, reflecting the ] religious tolerance and secularism that has been part of Kashmir's history since time immemorial and lives in the heart and soul of most Kashmiris, Muslim, Hindu or Buddhist; as opposed to the dogmatic and non-secular Wahabi/Sunni Islam represented by Pakistan. Indeed, the secular nature of Kashmiri Muslims and Hindus is exemplified by the fact that till 1947, Jammu and Kashmir was ruled by a Hindu King, ] ], even though an overwhelming majority of the inhabitants of Jammu and Kashmir were Muslim.<!--Source?--> | |||
|+ Population of Jammu & Kashmir Princely State by Province (1901–1941) | |||
! rowspan="2" |] | |||
! colspan="2" |Jammu Province | |||
! colspan="2" |Kashmir Province | |||
! colspan="2" |Frontier Regions | |||
! colspan="2" |Jammu & Kashmir Princely State | |||
|- | |||
!] | |||
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}} | |||
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}} | |||
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}} | |||
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}} | |||
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}} | |||
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}} | |||
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}} | |||
|- | |||
! 1901<ref name="Census1901"/> | |||
| 1,521,307 | |||
| {{Percentage | 1521307 | 2905578 | 2 }} | |||
| 1,157,394 | |||
| {{Percentage | 1157394 | 2905578 | 2 }} | |||
| 226,877 | |||
| {{Percentage | 226877 | 2905578 | 2 }} | |||
! 2,905,578 | |||
! {{Percentage | 2905578 | 2905578 | 2 }} | |||
|- | |||
! 1911<ref name="Census1911"/> | |||
| 1,597,865 | |||
| {{Percentage | 1597865 | 3158126 | 2 }} | |||
| 1,295,201 | |||
| {{Percentage | 1295201 | 3158126 | 2 }} | |||
| 265,060 | |||
| {{Percentage | 265060 | 3158126 | 2 }} | |||
! 3,158,126 | |||
! {{Percentage | 3158126 | 3158126 | 2 }} | |||
|- | |||
! 1921<ref name="Census1921"/> | |||
| 1,640,259 | |||
| {{Percentage | 1640259 | 3320518 | 2 }} | |||
| 1,407,086 | |||
| {{Percentage | 1407086 | 3320518 | 2 }} | |||
| 273,173 | |||
| {{Percentage | 273173 | 3320518 | 2 }} | |||
! 3,320,518 | |||
! {{Percentage | 3320518 | 3320518 | 2 }} | |||
|- | |||
! 1931<ref name="Census1931"/> | |||
| 1,788,441 | |||
| {{Percentage | 1788441 | 3646243 | 2 }} | |||
| 1,569,218 | |||
| {{Percentage | 1569218 | 3646243 | 2 }} | |||
| 288,584 | |||
| {{Percentage | 288584 | 3646243 | 2 }} | |||
! 3,646,243 | |||
! {{Percentage | 3646243 | 3646243 | 2 }} | |||
|- | |||
! 1941<ref name="Census1941"/> | |||
| 1,981,433 | |||
| {{Percentage | 1981433 | 4021616 | 2 }} | |||
| 1,728,705 | |||
| {{Percentage | 1728705 | 4021616 | 2 }} | |||
| 311,478 | |||
| {{Percentage | 311478 | 4021616 | 2 }} | |||
! 4,021,616 | |||
! {{Percentage | 4021616 | 4021616 | 2 }} | |||
|} | |||
{| class="wikitable sortable" | |||
|+ Religious groups in Jammu & Kashmir Princely State (] era) | |||
! rowspan="2" |]<br>group | |||
! colspan="2" |1901<ref name="Census1901">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25366883 |jstor=saoa.crl.25366883 |access-date=3 November 2024 |title=Census of India 1901. Vol. 23A, Kashmir. Pt. 2, Tables. |year=1901 |pages=20}}</ref> | |||
! colspan="2" |1911<ref name="Census1911">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25394111 |jstor=saoa.crl.25394111 |access-date=3 November 2024 |title=Census of India 1911. Vol. 20, Kashmir. Pt. 2, Tables. |year=1911 |pages=17}}</ref> | |||
! colspan="2" |1921<ref name="Census1921">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25430177 |jstor=saoa.crl.25430177 |access-date=3 November 2024 |title=Census of India 1921. Vol. 22, Kashmir. Pt. 2, Tables. |year=1921 |pages=15}}</ref> | |||
! colspan="2" |1931<ref name="Census1931">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25797120 |jstor=saoa.crl.25797120 |access-date=3 November 2024 |title=Census of India 1931. Vol. 24, Jammu & Kashmir State. Pt. 2, Imperial & state tables. |year=1931 |pages=267}}</ref> | |||
! colspan="2" |1941<ref name="Census1941">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.28215644 |jstor=saoa.crl.28215644 |access-date=3 November 2024 |title=Census of India, 1941. Vol. 22, Jammu & Kashmir |year=1941 |pages=337–352}}</ref> | |||
|- | |||
!] | |||
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}} | |||
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}} | |||
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}} | |||
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}} | |||
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}} | |||
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}} | |||
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}} | |||
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}} | |||
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}} | |||
|- | |||
! ] ] | |||
| 2,154,695 | |||
| {{Percentage | 2154695 | 2905578 | 2 }} | |||
| 2,398,320 | |||
| {{Percentage | 2398320 | 3158126 | 2 }} | |||
| 2,548,514 | |||
| {{Percentage | 2548514 | 3320518 | 2 }} | |||
| 2,817,636 | |||
| {{Percentage | 2817636 | 3646243 | 2 }} | |||
| 3,101,247 | |||
| {{Percentage | 3101247 | 4021616 | 2 }} | |||
|- | |||
! ] ] | |||
| 689,073 | |||
| {{Percentage | 689073 | 2905578 | 2 }} | |||
| 690,390 | |||
| {{Percentage | 690390 | 3158126 | 2 }} | |||
| 692,641 | |||
| {{Percentage | 692641 | 3320518 | 2 }} | |||
| 736,222 | |||
| {{Percentage | 736222 | 3646243 | 2 }} | |||
| 809,165 | |||
| {{Percentage | 809165 | 4021616 | 2 }} | |||
|- | |||
! ] ] | |||
| 35,047 | |||
| {{Percentage | 35047 | 2905578 | 2 }} | |||
| 36,512 | |||
| {{Percentage | 36512 | 3158126 | 2 }} | |||
| 37,685 | |||
| {{Percentage | 37685 | 3320518 | 2 }} | |||
| 38,724 | |||
| {{Percentage | 38724 | 3646243 | 2 }} | |||
| 40,696 | |||
| {{Percentage | 40696 | 4021616 | 2 }} | |||
|- | |||
! ] ] | |||
| 25,828 | |||
| {{Percentage | 25828 | 2905578 | 2 }} | |||
| 31,553 | |||
| {{Percentage | 31553 | 3158126 | 2 }} | |||
| 39,507 | |||
| {{Percentage | 39507 | 3320518 | 2 }} | |||
| 50,662 | |||
| {{Percentage | 50662 | 3646243 | 2 }} | |||
| 65,903 | |||
| {{Percentage | 65903 | 4021616 | 2 }} | |||
|- | |||
! ] ] | |||
| 442 | |||
| {{Percentage | 442 | 2905578 | 2 }} | |||
| 345 | |||
| {{Percentage | 345 | 3158126 | 2 }} | |||
| 529 | |||
| {{Percentage | 529 | 3320518 | 2 }} | |||
| 597 | |||
| {{Percentage | 597 | 3646243 | 2 }} | |||
| 910 | |||
| {{Percentage | 910 | 4021616 | 2 }} | |||
|- | |||
! ] ] | |||
| 422 | |||
| {{Percentage | 422 | 2905578 | 2 }} | |||
| 975 | |||
| {{Percentage | 975 | 3158126 | 2 }} | |||
| 1,634 | |||
| {{Percentage | 1634 | 3320518 | 2 }} | |||
| 2,263 | |||
| {{Percentage | 2263 | 3646243 | 2 }} | |||
| 3,509 | |||
| {{Percentage | 3509 | 4021616 | 2 }} | |||
|- | |||
! ] ] | |||
| 11 | |||
| {{Percentage | 11 | 2905578 | 2 }} | |||
| 31 | |||
| {{Percentage | 31 | 3158126 | 2 }} | |||
| 7 | |||
| {{Percentage | 7 | 3320518 | 2 }} | |||
| 5 | |||
| {{Percentage | 5 | 3646243 | 2 }} | |||
| 29 | |||
| {{Percentage | 29 | 4021616 | 2 }} | |||
|- | |||
! ] | |||
| {{N/a}} | |||
| {{N/a}} | |||
| {{N/a}} | |||
| {{N/a}} | |||
| {{N/a}} | |||
| {{N/a}} | |||
| 134 | |||
| {{Percentage | 134 | 3646243 | 2 }} | |||
| 51 | |||
| {{Percentage | 51 | 4021616 | 2 }} | |||
|- | |||
! ] ] | |||
| {{N/a}} | |||
| {{N/a}} | |||
| {{N/a}} | |||
| {{N/a}} | |||
| {{N/a}} | |||
| {{N/a}} | |||
| {{N/a}} | |||
| {{N/a}} | |||
| 10 | |||
| {{Percentage | 10 | 4021616 | 2 }} | |||
|- | |||
! Others | |||
| 60 | |||
| {{Percentage | 60 | 2905578 | 2 }} | |||
| 0 | |||
| {{Percentage | 0 | 3158126 | 2 }} | |||
| 1 | |||
| {{Percentage | 1 | 3320518 | 2 }} | |||
| 0 | |||
| {{Percentage | 0 | 3646243 | 2 }} | |||
| 95 | |||
| {{Percentage | 95 | 4021616 | 2 }} | |||
|- | |||
! Total population | |||
! 2,905,578 | |||
! {{Percentage | 2905578 | 2905578 | 2 }} | |||
! 3,158,126 | |||
! {{Percentage | 3158126 | 3158126 | 2 }} | |||
! 3,320,518 | |||
! {{Percentage | 3320518 | 3320518 | 2 }} | |||
! 3,646,243 | |||
! {{Percentage | 3646243 | 3646243 | 2 }} | |||
! 4,021,616 | |||
! {{Percentage | 4021616 | 4021616 | 2 }} | |||
|- class="sortbottom" | |||
| colspan="11" | {{small|Note: The Princely State of Jammu and Kashmir includes the contemporary administrative divisions of ], ], ], ], and ].}} | |||
|} | |||
=== Modern era === | |||
Indian government maintains that, the Pakistani-held territories are land illegally taken by Pakistan. The fact that Pakistan gave five thousand square miles of this Kashmiri/Indian land (see ]) that it had forcibly occupied in ] to ] in ], is even more difficult for India to understand or accept.<!--Source?--> | |||
People in Jammu speak Hindi, Punjabi and Dogri, the Kashmir Valley people speak Kashmiri, and people in the sparsely inhabited Ladakh speak Tibetan and Balti.<ref name=britannica-intro/> | |||
The population of India-administered union territories of Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh combined is 12,541,302;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.geohive.com/cntry/in-01.aspx |title=India, Jammu and Kashmir population statistics |publisher=GeoHive |access-date=29 May 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150419221846/http://www.geohive.com/cntry/in-01.aspx |archive-date=19 April 2015 }}</ref> that of Pakistan-administered territory of Azad Kashmir is 4,045,366; and that of Gilgit-Baltistan is 1,492,924.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-08-26 |title=Census 2017: AJK population rises to over 4m |url=https://nation.com.pk/27-Aug-2017/census-2017-ajk-population-rises-to-over-4m |access-date=2022-11-26 |website=The Nation |language=en |archive-date=12 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612140054/https://nation.com.pk/27-Aug-2017/census-2017-ajk-population-rises-to-over-4m |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Gilgit-Baltistan: Districts & Places - Population Statistics, Maps, Charts, Weather and Web Information |url=https://www.citypopulation.de/en/pakistan/cities/gilgitbaltistan/ |access-date=2022-11-26 |website=www.citypopulation.de |archive-date=20 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920172116/https://www.citypopulation.de/en/pakistan/cities/gilgitbaltistan/ |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
====Pakistani view==== | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
The Pakistani claim to Kashmir is based on the fact that the majority of Kashmir's population is Muslim. Since Pakistan was created as a nation for the Muslims of India, the leadership of Pakistan has always felt that Kashmir rightfully belongs to Pakistan. The Pakistani claim is also based on a belief that most Kashmiris would vote to join Pakistan, although this has never been proved or disproved.<!--Source?--> | |||
Successive military governments in Pakistan have apparently acted to keep the Kashmir problem alive on multiple occasions. For example, in the ], Pakistan's military chief, ] deposed and hanged the then civilian Prime Minister of Pakistan ], who had made great progress with Indian Prime Minister ] to solve the Kashmir problem based on mutual understanding and respect, as envisaged in the ]. ], the military leader of Pakistan, removed the civilian leader Bhutto and killed him before the Kashmir issue could be solved.<!--Source?--> | |||
A second well-known instance was in the late ], when the civilan leader of Pakistan, ], was removed by the military ruler ], after Sharif was widely blamed for the ] debacle. Musharraf seized power and imprisoned Sharif, who was later exiled after his health seriously deteriorated during imprisonment. At the same time, Musharraf also completely jeopardized the peace process by making a disastrous and ill-planned military misadventure into the Kargil sector of India, leading to the ] of 1999. <!-- This part should go to the terrorist information section above -->The next two years, Kashmiri fighters organised an attack on the ] in Srinagar. | |||
====The water dispute==== | |||
Another valid reason behind the dispute over Kashmir is water. Kashmir is the origin point for many rivers including the ] and its tributaries ] and ] which primarily flow into Pakistan while other branches - the ], ] and the ] irrigate northern India. Pakistan has been apprehensive that in a dire need India under whose portion of Kashmir lies the origins of the said rivers, would use its strategic advantage and withhold the flow and thus choke the agrarian economy of Pakistan. The Boundary Award of 1947 meant that the headworks of the chief irrigation systems of Pakistan were left located in Indian Territory. Essentially this is seen as a "veto" power held by India over Pakistan agriculture. In view of the plans to build a dam over Chenab, Pakistan has highlighted the plight, but on the other hand India has maintained that it cannot deny water to its own people whose mandate the government needs to be in power.<!--Source?--> | |||
Many historians agree that the failure of Pakistan to take the much more fertile areas of Kashmir during the initial conflict (]) has cost them dear. This is because the area occupied by Pakistan is much less fertile and less strategic a point given India's unlimited access to the most critical mineral of all: ]. The Kashmir issue thus is both about land and water.<!--Source?--> | |||
===Map issues=== | |||
As with other disputed territories, each government issues maps depicting their claims in Kashmir as part of their territory, regardless of actual control. It is illegal in India to exclude all or part of Kashmir in a map. Non-participants often use the ] and the ] as the depicted boundaries, as is done in the ], and the region is often marked out in hashmarks, although the Indian Government strictly opposes such practices.<!--Source?--> | |||
=== Recent developments === | |||
Both India and Pakistan continue to assert their sovereignty or rights over the entire region of Kashmir. India considers all of Kashmir to be an integral part of India, and | |||
often makes statements domestically about acquiring the Pakistani half, known in Pakistan as ‘Azad’ (free) Kashmir. In international forums however it has offered to make the Line of Control a permanent border on a number of occasions. Officially Pakistan insists on a UN sponsored plebiscite, so that the people of Kashmir will have a free say in which country all of Kashmir should be incorporated into. Unofficially, the Pakistani leadership has indicated that they would be willing to accept alternatives such as a demilitarized Kashmir, if sovereignty of Azad Kashmir was to be extended over the Kashmir valley, or the ‘Chenab’ formula, by which India would retain parts of Kashmir on its side of the Chenab river, and Pakistan the other side. Besides the popular factions that support either parties, there is a third faction which supports independence and withdrawal of both India and Pakistan. These have been the respective stands of the parties for long, and there have been no significant change over the years. As a result, all efforts to solve the conflict have been futile so far.<!--Source?--> | |||
====Conflict in Kargil==== | |||
{{main|Kargil War}} | |||
In mid-], insurgents from ] infiltrated into ]. During the winter season, Indian forces move down to lower altitudes as severe climatic conditions makes it almost impossible for them to guard the high peaks near the ]. The ]-backed insurgents took advantage of this and occupied vacant mountain peaks of the Kargil range overlooking the highway in Indian Kashmir, connecting ] and ]. By blocking the highway, they wanted to cut-off the only link between the Kashmir Valley and ]. This resulted in a high-scale conflict between the ] and the ]. | |||
At the same time, fears of the ] turning into a nuclear war, provoked the then-] President ] to pressure Pakistan to retreat. The conflict ended with the withdrawal of Pakistani backed forces, and India reclaiming control of the peaks which they now patrol and monitor at considerable cost. | |||
====Efforts to end the crisis==== | |||
The ] attacks on the US, resulted in the US government wanting to restrain militancy in Pakistan. The USA put diplomatic pressure on ] to cease infiltrations by Islamic fighters into Indian-held Kashmir. The international community also created pressure on ] to stop the terrorist camps operating on its soil. In early ], India sought to take advantage of ]'s new attitude by escalating its response to the attempted terrorist attack on the ], resulting in war threats, massive deployment and international fears of ] in the subcontinent. | |||
After intensive diplomatic efforts by other countries, India started to withdraw troops from the international border, a move that was immediately reciprocated by Pakistan on ], ], and negotiations began again.<!--Source?--> Effective ], ], India and Pakistan have agreed to maintain a ceasefire along the undisputed International Border, the disputed ], and the ] glacier.<!--Source?--> This is the first such "total ceasefire" declared by both nuclear powers in nearly 15 years. In February 2004, Pakistan further increased pressure on Pakistani Muslims fighting in Indian held Kashmir to adhere to the ceasefire. The nuclear-armed neighbours also launched several other mutual confidence building measures. Restarting the bus service between the Indian- and Pakistani- administered Kashmir has helped difuse the tensions between the countries. Both India and Pakistan have also decided to cooperate on economic fronts. | |||
==Subdivisions== | |||
===Indian-administered Kashmir=== | |||
India controls approximately 45.5% (101,387 ]) of the disputed terrirtory. Indian-administered Kashmir, known as the state of ], includes 3 main regions: | |||
*] | |||
*] | |||
*] | |||
] is divided into 6 administrative districts: Anantnag, Baramulla, Budgam, Doda, Jammu, Kargil, Kathua, Kupwara, Leh, Poonch, Pulwama, Rajauri, Srinagar and Udhampur. Major cities include ], ] and ]. | |||
===Pakistan-administered Kashmir=== | |||
The Pakistan-controlled portion of Kashmir, is divided up into the following regions: | |||
*]: 250 miles in length with width varying from 10 to 40 miles, 13,300 km² (5134 miles²). | |||
*], a much larger area, 72,496 ] (27,991 ]), incorporated into Pakistan and administered as a de facto dependency. | |||
===Chinese-adminisered Kashmir=== | |||
Areas under Chinese-control include: | |||
*]: approximately 37,555 ] in size. | |||
*A small part, the ], of the Northern Areas that was ceded to ] by ] in ]. | |||
==Demographics== | |||
{{expandsect}} | |||
{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 10px 0 10px 25px; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #AAA solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%; float: right;" | |||
|- style="background: #E9E9E9" | |||
! Occupier !! Area !! Population !! % Muslim !! % Hindu !! % Buddhist !! % Other | |||
|- | |- | ||
! Administered by !! Area !! Population !! % ] !! % ] !! % ] !! % other | |||
| rowspan="2" | Pakistan | |||
|Northern Areas | |||
| rowspan="2" | ~3 million | |||
|99%</td> | |||
|– | |||
|– | |||
|– | |||
|- | |- | ||
| rowspan="3"| {{IND}} | |||
|Azad Kashmir | |||
|] | |||
|99% | |||
|~4 million (4 million) | |||
|– | |||
|95% | |||
|– | |||
|4% | |||
|– | |||
|– | |||
|– | |||
|- | |- | ||
|] | |||
| rowspan="3" | India | |||
|~3 million (3 million) | |||
|Jammu | |||
| rowspan="3" | ~9 million | |||
|30% | |30% | ||
|66% | |66% | ||
|– | |||
|– | |||
|4% | |4% | ||
|- | |- | ||
|Ladakh | |] | ||
|~0.25 million (250,000) | |||
|46% | |46% | ||
|12% | |||
|– | |||
| |
|40% | ||
| |
|2% | ||
|- | |- | ||
| rowspan="2"| {{PAK}} | |||
|Kashmir Valley | |||
|] | |||
|95% | |||
|~4 million (4 million) | |||
|4% | |||
|100% | |||
|– | |||
|– | |||
|– | |||
|– | |||
|– | |||
|- | |||
|] | |||
|~2 million (2 million) | |||
|99% | |||
|– | |||
|– | |||
|– | |||
|- | |||
| rowspan="2"| {{CHN}} | |||
|] | |||
|– | |||
|– | |||
|– | |||
|– | |||
|– | |||
|- | |- | ||
|] | |||
|China | |||
|– | |||
|Aksai Chin | |||
|– | |||
|– | |||
|– | |||
|– | |||
|– | |||
|– | |||
|– | |||
|– | |||
|– | |||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan ="7" | | |||
|colspan ="7" style="background: #E9E9E9; font-size: 90%" | Statistics from the ] report | |||
*Statistics from the ] report. | |||
|} | |} | ||
<gallery widths="200" heights="200"> | |||
In 1941 the Hindus represented 15 % of the population. In 1991 they only represented 0.1 % of Kashmir's population. | |||
File:Muslim-shawl-makers-kashmir1867.jpg|A Muslim shawl-making family shown in ''Cashmere shawl manufactory'', 1867, chromolithograph, William Simpson | |||
File:KashmirPundit1895BritishLibrary.jpg|A group of Pandits, or Brahmin priests, in Kashmir, photographed by an unknown photographer in the 1890s | |||
File:Kashmir Ladakh women in local costume.jpg|] women from ], northern ], in local costumes | |||
</gallery> | |||
==Economy== | |||
In 1989, the total population of Kashmiri pundits was approximately 425,000. Only 15,000 Kashmiri Pundits still stay in the valley. | |||
{{Further|Azad Kashmir#Economy|Jammu and Kashmir (state)#Economy}} | |||
Kashmir's economy is centred around ]. Traditionally the staple crop of the valley was rice, which formed the chief food of the people. In addition, Indian corn, wheat, barley and oats were also grown. Given its ], it is suited for crops like ], artichoke, seakale, broad beans, scarletrunners, beetroot, cauliflower and cabbage. Fruit trees are common in the valley, and the cultivated orchards yield pears, apples, ]es, and cherries. The chief trees are ], firs and ]s, ] or plane, maple, birch and ], apple, cherry. | |||
==Culture== | |||
Historically, Kashmir became known worldwide when ] was exported to other regions and nations (exports have ceased due to decreased abundance of the cashmere goat and increased competition from China). Kashmiris are well adept at ] and making ] ]s, silk carpets, rugs, ]s, and pottery. ], too, is grown in Kashmir. Srinagar is known for its silver-work, ], wood-carving, and the weaving of silk. The economy was badly damaged by the ] which, as of 8 October 2005, resulted in over 70,000 deaths in the Pakistan-administered territory of Azad Kashmir and around 1,500 deaths in the India-administered territory of Jammu and Kashmir. | |||
Kashmiri lifestyle is essentially - irrespective of the differing relgious beliefs - slow paced. Generally peace loving people, the culture has been rich enough to reflect the religious diversity as tribes celebrate festivities that divert them from their otherwise monotonous way of life. Kashmiris are known to enjoy their music in its various local forms and the dresses of both sexes are quite colorful. The Dumhal is a famous dance in Kashmir, performed by menfolk of the Wattal region. The women perform the Rouff another folk dance. | |||
{{Wide image|Srinagar pano.jpg|800px|Srinagar, the largest city of Kashmir|center}} | |||
{{expandsect}} | |||
== |
===Transport=== | ||
Transport is predominantly by air or road vehicles in the region.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bharatonline.com/kashmir/travel-tips/local-transport.html |title=Local Transport in Kashmir – Means of Transportation Kashmir – Mode of Transportation Kashmir India |publisher=Bharatonline.com |access-date=3 August 2012 |url-status=live |archive-date=17 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200517211236/http://www.bharatonline.com/kashmir/travel-tips/local-transport.html}}</ref> Kashmir has a {{cvt|135|km|0}} long modern ] line that started in October 2009, and was last extended in 2013 and connects Baramulla, in the western part of Kashmir, to Srinagar and ]. It is expected to link Kashmir to the rest of India after the construction of the railway line from ] to Banihal is completed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.baapar.com/blog/how-to-reach-kashmir-by-train-air-bus/ |title=How to Reach Kashmir by Train, Air, Bus? |publisher=Baapar.com |access-date=22 January 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-date=8 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308230308/http://www.baapar.com/blog/how-to-reach-kashmir-by-train-air-bus/}}</ref> | |||
==In culture== | |||
Historically, Kashmir came into economic limelight when the world famous ] wool was exported to other regions and nations. Kashmiris are well adept at ] and making ], silk carpets, rugs, ]s and pottery. Kashmir is home to the finest ] in the world - the Kashmir/Indian saffron. Efforts are on to export the naturally grown fruits and vegetables as ]s mainly to the ]. It has traditionally been a holy site for various religions like, Hinduism, Buddhism and Islam. Along with pilgrimage, since the dawn of the ], it also became a favourite tourist spot until the spurt of tensions in the ]. | |||
{{see also|Kashmiri handicrafts}} | |||
{{sect-stub}} | |||
] or Chiefly.]] | |||
Irish poet ]'s 1817 romantic poem '']'' is credited with having made Kashmir (spelt ''Cashmere'' in the poem) "a household term in ] societies", conveying the idea that it was a kind of ].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Arts and South Asia|via=Issuu|publisher=Harvard South Asia Institute|date=12 May 2017|page=45|chapter=At the threshold of paradise: Kashmir in Mughal Persian poetry|first=Sunil|last=Sharma|url=https://issuu.com/harvardsai/docs/sai_arts_final|access-date=30 January 2021|archive-date=10 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220410050659/https://issuu.com/harvardsai/docs/sai_arts_final|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
== |
==See also== | ||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
== Notes == | |||
] | |||
{{notelist}} | |||
The scenic setting of Kashmir itself has been a major tourist attraction despite the ever present danger. The mode of travel itself is a picturesque sight with many house boats and boat taxis ferrying passengers and goods alike. There are many mosques serving the Muslim population, such as the Hazratbal Mosque, situated on the western banks of ]. The mosque is home to a holy hair belonging to the prophet ] which was sent to Kashmir by the ] emperor ]. Thirty kilometers from Srinagar lies Chrar-e-Sharif, which is a holy shrine of the Muslim Sheikh Noor-ud-Din Wali. Originally constructed in ], Khanqah of Shah Hamadan is the first mosque ever built in Srinagar. There are also some ] temples. In addition, there is the claimed tomb of ] in the Rozabal section of Srinagar, visited by many. There is also the purported tomb of ] on Mount Nebo (Nebo Bal). Recently a number of ] have started to visit Kashmir to see the land where some lost tribes may have settled in antiquity.<!--Source?--> Kashmir tourism received a boost when the world's highest and longest operating ] was opened for the public in the ] region of J&K, thereby providing easier access to skiing as well as mountaineering. | |||
== |
==References== | ||
{{Reflist|30em}} | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] - History post partition is covered on this page. | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] - The purported tomb of Jesus in Srinagar | |||
==Bibliography== | |||
== Further reading == | |||
=== General history === | |||
* Drew, Federic. 1877. “The Northern Barrier of India: a popular account of the Jammoo and Kashmir Territories with Illustrations.” 1st edition: Edward Stanford, London. Reprint: Light & Life Publishers, Jammu. 1971. | |||
{{Refbegin}} | |||
*Neve, Arthur.(Date unknown). ''The Tourist's Guide to Kashmir, Ladakh, Skardo &c''. 18th Edition. Civil and Military Gazette, Ltd., Lahore. (The date of this edition is unknown - but the 16th edition was published in 1938) | |||
* {{Citation |last1=Bose |first1=Sugata |author-link1=Sugata Bose |last2=Jalal |first2=Ayesha |author-link2=Ayesha Jalal |year=2003 |title=Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy |publisher=London and New York: Routledge, 2nd edition. Pp. xiii, 304 |isbn=978-0-415-30787-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/modernsouthasiah00bose }}. | |||
*Stein, M. Aurel. 1900. ''Kalhaṇa's Rājataraṅgiṇī – A Chronicle of the Kings of Kaśmīr'', 2 vols. London, A. Constable & Co. Ltd. 1900. Reprint, Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 1979. | |||
* {{Citation|last1=Brown |first1=Judith M. |author-link=Judith M. Brown |year=1994 |title=Modern India: The Origins of an Asian Democracy |publisher=Oxford and New York: ]. Pp. xiii, 474 |isbn=978-0-19-873113-9}}. | |||
*Victoria Schofield, ''Kashmir in the Crossfire'' (London: I B Tauris, 1996) | |||
* {{citation |last=Copland |first=Ian |title=The Princes of India in the Endgame of Empire, 1917–1947 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h0QKqCA-QHIC |year=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-89436-4 |ref={{sfnref|Copland, The Princes of India in the Endgame of Empire|2002}} |access-date=1 January 2017 |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140443/https://books.google.com/books?id=h0QKqCA-QHIC |url-status=live }} | |||
*Kashmir Study Group, 1947-1997, the Kashmir dispute at fifty : charting paths to peace (New York, 1997) | |||
* {{Citation |last=Khan |first=Yasmin |year=2007 |title=The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan |publisher=New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 250 pages |isbn=978-0-300-12078-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/greatpartitionma00khan }} | |||
*Knight, E. F. 1893. ''Where Three Empires Meet: A Narrative of Recent Travel in: Kashmir, Western Tibet, Gilgit, and the adjoining countries''. Longmans, Green, and Co., London. Reprint: Ch'eng Wen Publishing Company, Taipei. 1971. | |||
* {{Citation |last1=Kulke |first1=Hermann |author-link1=Hermann Kulke |last2=Rothermund |first2=Dietmar |year=2004 |title=A History of India |publisher=4th edition. Routledge, Pp. xii, 448 |isbn=978-0-415-32920-0}}. | |||
*Navnita Behera, ''State, identity and violence : Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh'' (New Delhi: Manohar, 2000) | |||
* {{Citation |last1=Metcalf |first1=Barbara |author-link1=Barbara Metcalf |last2=Metcalf |first2=Thomas R. |author-link2=Thomas R. Metcalf |year=2006 |title=A Concise History of Modern India (Cambridge Concise Histories) |publisher=Cambridge and New York: ]. Pp. xxxiii, 372 |isbn=978-0-521-68225-1}}. | |||
*Sumit Ganguly, ''The Crisis in Kashmir'' (Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center Press; Cambridge : Cambridge U.P., 1997) | |||
* {{Citation |last = Ramusack |first = Barbara |author-link=Barbara Ramusack |year = 2004 |title = The Indian Princes and their States (The New Cambridge History of India) |publisher = Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press. Pp. 324 |isbn = 978-0-521-03989-5|title-link = The New Cambridge History of India }} | |||
*Sumantra Bose, ''The challenge in Kashmir : democracy, self-determination and a just peace'' (New Delhi: Sage, 1997) | |||
* {{Citation |last1=Stein |first1=Burton |author-link=Burton Stein |year=2001 |title=A History of India |publisher=New Delhi and Oxford: Oxford University Press. Pp. xiv, 432 |isbn=978-0-19-565446-2}}. | |||
*Alastair Lamb, Kashmir: ''A Disputed Legacy 1846-1990'' (Hertingfordbury, Herts: Roxford Books, 1991) | |||
* {{Citation |last1=Talbot |first1=Ian |last2=Singh |first2=Gurharpal |title=The Partition of India |year =2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press. Pp. xviii, 206 |isbn=978-0-521-76177-2}} | |||
*Prem Shankar Jha, Kashmir, 1947: rival versions of history (New Delhi : Oxford University Press, 1996) | |||
* {{Citation |last=Wolpert |first=Stanley |author-link=Stanley Wolpert |year=2006 |title=Shameful Flight: The Last Years of the British Empire in India |publisher=Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Pp. 272 |isbn=978-0-19-515198-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/shamefulflightla00wolp }}. | |||
*Manoj Joshi, ''The Lost Rebellion'' (New Delhi: Penguin India, 1999) | |||
{{refend}} | |||
*Alexander Evans, ''Why Peace Won't Come to Kashmir'', Current History (Vol 100, No 645) April 2001 p170-175. | |||
*Younghusband, Francis and Molyneux, E. 1917. ''Kashmir''. A. & C. Black, London. | |||
*Drew, Frederic. Date unknown. ''The Northern Barrier of India: a popular account of the Jammoo and Kashmir Territories with Illustrations''. Reprint: Light & Life Publishers, Jammu. 1971. | |||
*Moorcroft, William and Trebeck, George. 1841. ''Travels in the Himalayan Provinces of Hindustan and the Panjab; in Ladakh and Kashmir, in Peshawar, Kabul, Kunduz, and Bokhara... from 1819 to 1825'', Vol. II. Reprint: New Delhi, Sagar Publications, 1971. | |||
*Anonymous. 1614. '''''Baharistan-i-Shahi:''' A Chronicle of Mediaeval Kashmir''. Translated by K.N. Pandit. | |||
== |
=== Kashmir history === | ||
{{refbegin}} | |||
* | |||
* {{citation |last=Bose |first=Sumantra |author-link=Sumantra Bose |title=The Challenge in Kashmir: Democracy, Self-Determination and a Just Peace |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-EhuAAAAMAAJ |year=1997 |publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-0-8039-9350-1 |ref={{sfnref|Bose, The Challenge in Kashmir|1997}} |access-date=1 January 2017 |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140442/https://books.google.com/books?id=-EhuAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }} | |||
* | |||
* {{citation |first=Sumantra |last=Bose |author-link=Sumantra Bose |title=Kashmir: Roots of Conflict, Paths to Peace |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01173-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3ACMe9WBdNAC |ref={{sfnref|Bose, Roots of Conflict, Paths to Peace|2003}} |access-date=1 January 2017 |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140444/https://books.google.com/books?id=3ACMe9WBdNAC |url-status=live }} | |||
* | |||
* {{citation|last=Keenan|first=Brigid|title=Travels in Kashmir|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oilxiI9uso8C|year=2013|publisher=Hachette India|isbn=978-93-5009-729-8|ref={{sfnref|Keenan, Travels in Kashmir|2013}}}} | |||
* | |||
* {{citation |last=Korbel |first=Josef |author-link=Josef Korbel |title=Danger in Kashmir |publisher=Princeton University Press |edition=second |year=1966 |orig-date=1954 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Q7WCgAAQBAJ |ref={{sfnref|Korbel, Danger in Kashmir|1966}} |isbn=9781400875238 |access-date=27 September 2016 |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140444/https://books.google.com/books?id=7Q7WCgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }} | |||
* | |||
* {{citation |last=Lamb |first=Alastair |title=Kashmir: A Disputed Legacy, 1846–1990 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YQ5WAAAAYAAJ |year=1991 |publisher=Oxford University Press |orig-date=first published 1991 by Roxford Books |isbn=978-0-19-577423-8 |access-date=1 January 2017 |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140444/https://books.google.com/books?id=YQ5WAAAAYAAJ |url-status=live }} | |||
* (The Silk Road Seattle website contains many useful resources including a number of full text historical texts) | |||
* {{citation |last=Lamb |first=Alastair |title=Incomplete Partition: The Genesis of the Kashmir Dispute, 1947–1948 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vi9WAAAAYAAJ |year=2002 |orig-date=first published 1997 by Roxford Books |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=9780195797671 |ref={{sfnref|Lamb, Incomplete Partition|2002}} |access-date=1 January 2017 |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140446/https://books.google.com/books?id=Vi9WAAAAYAAJ |url-status=live }} | |||
* | |||
* {{citation |last=Malik |first=Iffat |title=Kashmir: Ethnic Conflict, International Dispute |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n9J8QgAACAAJ |year=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-579622-3 |ref={{sfnref|Malik, Kashmir: Ethnic Conflict, International Dispute|2005}} |access-date=1 January 2017 |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140446/https://books.google.com/books?id=n9J8QgAACAAJ |url-status=live }} | |||
* | |||
* {{citation |last=Panikkar |first=K. M. |title=Gulab Singh |author-link=K. M. Panikkar |publisher=Martin Hopkinson Ltd |year=1930 |location=London |url=https://archive.org/details/gulabsingh179218031570mbp }} | |||
* | |||
* {{citation |title=Hindu Rulers, Muslim Subjects: Islam, Rights, and the History of Kashmir |first=Mridu |last=Rai |publisher=C. Hurst & Co |year=2004 |isbn=978-1850656616 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qTHTI-Eus8kC |access-date=15 September 2020 |ref={{sfnref|Rai, Hindu Rulers, Muslim Subjects|2004}}}} | |||
* | |||
* {{citation |editor-last=Rao |editor-first=Aparna |title=The Valley of Kashmir: The Making and Unmaking of a Composite Culture? |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nIUMAQAAMAAJ |year=2008 |publisher=Manohar Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-81-7304-751-0 |ref={{sfnref|Aparna Rao, The Valley of Kashmir Composite Culture|2008}} |access-date=1 January 2017 |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140446/https://books.google.com/books?id=nIUMAQAAMAAJ |url-status=live }} | |||
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** {{citation |last=Evans |first=Alexander |chapter=Kashmiri Exceptionalism |pages=713–741 |editor-last=Rao |editor-first=Aparna |title=The Valley of Kashmir: The Making and Unmaking of a Composite Culture? |year=2008 |ref={{sfnref|Alexander, Kashmiri Exceptionalism|2008}}}} | |||
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** {{citation |last=Kaw |first=Mushtaq A. |chapter=Land Rights in Rural Kashmir: A Study in Continuity and Change from Late-Sixteenth to Late-Twentieth Centuries |pages=207–234 |editor-last=Rao |editor-first=Aparna |title=The Valley of Kashmir: The Making and Unmaking of a Composite Culture? |year=2008 |ref={{sfnref|Kaw, Land Rights in Rural Kashmir|2008}}}} | |||
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** {{citation |last=Khan |first=Mohammad Ishaq |chapter=Islam, State and Society in Medieval Kashmir: A Revaluation of Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani's Historical Role |pages=97–198 |editor-last=Rao |editor-first=Aparna |title=The Valley of Kashmir: The Making and Unmaking of a Composite Culture? |year=2008 |ref={{sfnref|Khan, Islam, State and Society in Medieval Kashmir|2008}}}} | |||
* | |||
** {{citation |last=Madan |first=T. N. |author-link=Triloki Nath Madan |chapter=Kashmir, Kashmiris, Kashmiriyat: An Introductory Essay |pages=1–36 |editor-last=Rao |editor-first=Aparna |title=The Valley of Kashmir: The Making and Unmaking of a Composite Culture? |year=2008 |ref={{sfnref|Madan, Kashmir, Kashmiris, Kashimiriyat|2008}}}} | |||
* | |||
** {{citation |last=Reynolds |first=Nathalène |chapter=Revisiting Key Episodes in Modern Kashmir History |pages=563–604 |editor-last=Rao |editor-first=Aparna |title=The Valley of Kashmir: The Making and Unmaking of a Composite Culture? |year=2008 |ref={{sfnref|Reynolds, Revisiting Key Episodes in History|2008}}}} | |||
* | |||
** {{citation |last=Witzel |first=Michael |author-link=Michael Witzel |chapter=The Kashmiri Pandits: Their Early History |pages=37–96 |editor-last=Rao |editor-first=Aparna |title=The Valley of Kashmir: The Making and Unmaking of a Composite Culture? |year=2008 |ref={{sfnref|Witzel, Kashmiri Pandits Early History|2008}}}} | |||
* | |||
** {{citation |last=Zutshi |first=Chitraleka |chapter=Shrines, Political Authority, and Religious Identities in Late-Nineteenth and Early-Twentieth-century Kashmir |pages=235–258 |editor-last=Rao |editor-first=Aparna |title=The Valley of Kashmir: The Making and Unmaking of a Composite Culture? |year=2008 |ref={{sfnref|Zutshi, Shrines, Political Authority and Religious Identities|2008}}}} | |||
* | |||
* {{citation |last=Schaffer |first=Howard B. |title=The Limits of Influence: America's Role in Kashmir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kyYOWdA5PNkC |date=2009 |publisher=Brookings Institution Press |isbn=978-0-8157-0370-9 |ref={{sfnref|Schaffer, The Limits of Influence|2009}} |access-date=1 January 2017 |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140452/https://books.google.com/books?id=kyYOWdA5PNkC |url-status=live }} | |||
* | |||
* {{citation |first=Victoria |last=Schofield |author-link=Victoria Schofield |title=Kashmir in Conflict |publisher=I. B. Taurus & Co |location=London and New York |year=2003 |orig-date=2000 |isbn=978-1860648984 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rkTetMfI6QkC |ref={{sfnref|Schofield, Kashmir in Conflict|2003}} }} | |||
* | |||
* {{citation |last=Singh |first=Bawa Satinder |title=Raja Gulab Singh's Role in the First Anglo-Sikh War |journal=Modern Asian Studies |volume=5 |pages=35–59 |number=1 |year=1971 |jstor=311654 |ref={{sfnref|Satinder Singh, Raja Gulab Singh's Role|1971}} |doi=10.1017/s0026749x00002845|s2cid=145500298 }} | |||
* | |||
* {{citation |last=Zutshi |first=Chitralekha |title=Languages of Belonging: Islam, Regional Identity, and the Making of Kashmir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dlBjzE-1ML8C&pg=PA318 |publisher=C. Hurst & Co. Publishers |isbn=978-1-85065-700-2 |ref={{sfnref|Zutshi, Languages of Belonging|2004}} |year=2004 |access-date=15 September 2020}} | |||
* | |||
{{Refend}} | |||
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* http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/in_depth/south_asia/2002/kashmir_flashpoint/ | |||
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* http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2002/06/09/1022982800226.html | |||
* http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,3604,730340,00.html | |||
* http://www.ccc.nps.navy.mil/research/kargil/index.asp | |||
* | |||
* News, Analysis, and Opinion from many sources | |||
=== Historical sources === | |||
;'''Map Issues''' | |||
{{Refbegin}} | |||
* Blank, Jonah. "Kashmir–Fundamentalism Takes Root", ''Foreign Affairs'', 78.6 (November/December 1999): 36–42. | |||
* Drew, Federic. 1877. ''The Northern Barrier of India: a popular account of the Jammoo and Kashmir Territories with Illustrations''; 1st edition: Edward Stanford, London. Reprint: Light & Life Publishers, Jammu. 1971. | |||
* Evans, Alexander. Why Peace Won't Come to Kashmir, Current History (Vol 100, No 645) April 2001 p. 170–175. | |||
* Hussain, Ijaz. 1998. "Kashmir Dispute: An International Law Perspective", National Institute of Pakistan Studies. | |||
* Irfani, Suroosh, ed "Fifty Years of the Kashmir Dispute": Based on the proceedings of the International Seminar held at Muzaffarabad, Azad Jammu and Kashmir 24–25 August 1997: University of Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Muzaffarabad, AJK, 1997. | |||
* ] Lost Rebellion: Kashmir in the Nineties (Penguin, New Delhi, 1999). | |||
* Khan, L. Ali {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140944/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=987561 |date=17 January 2023 }} 31 Columbia Journal of Transnational Law, 31, p. 495 (1994). | |||
* Knight, E. F. 1893. ''Where Three Empires Meet: A Narrative of Recent Travel in: Kashmir, Western Tibet, Gilgit, and the adjoining countries''. Longmans, Green, and Co., London. Reprint: Ch'eng Wen Publishing Company, Taipei. 1971. | |||
* Knight, William, Henry. 1863. ''Diary of a Pedestrian in Cashmere and Thibet''. Richard Bentley, London. Reprint 1998: Asian Educational Services, New Delhi. | |||
* ]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100402012239/http://i-p-o.org/Koechler-Kashmir_Discourse-European_Parliament-April2008.htm |date=2 April 2010 }}. Keynote speech delivered at the "Global Discourse on Kashmir 2008." European Parliament, Brussels, 1 April 2008. | |||
* ] and ]. 1841. ''Travels in the Himalayan Provinces of Hindustan and the Panjab; in Ladakh and Kashmir, in Peshawar, Kabul, Kunduz, and Bokhara... from 1819 to 1825'', Vol. II. Reprint: New Delhi, Sagar Publications, 1971. | |||
* Neve, Arthur. (Date unknown). ''The Tourist's Guide to Kashmir, Ladakh, Skardo &c''. 18th Edition. Civil and Military Gazette, Ltd., Lahore. (The date of this edition is unknown – but the 16th edition was published in 1938). | |||
* Stein, M. Aurel. 1900. ''Kalhaṇa's Rājataraṅgiṇī–A Chronicle of the Kings of Kaśmīr'', 2 vols. London, A. Constable & Co. Ltd. 1900. Reprint, Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 1979. | |||
* Younghusband, Francis and Molyneux, Edward 1917. ''Kashmir''. A. & C. Black, London. | |||
* Norelli-Bachelet, Patrizia. "Kashmir and the Convergence of Time, Space and Destiny", 2004; {{ISBN|0-945747-00-4}}. First published as a four-part series, March 2002 – April 2003, in 'Prakash', a review of the Jagat Guru Bhagavaan Gopinath Ji Charitable Foundation. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928141452/http://www.patrizianorellibachelet.com/Kashmir.html |date=28 September 2007 }} | |||
* Muhammad Ayub. ''An Army; Its Role & Rule (A History of the Pakistan Army from Independence to Kargil 1947–1999)''. Pittsburgh: Rosedog Books, 2005. {{ISBN|0-8059-9594-3}}. | |||
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==External links== | |||
* - Article explains 5 major versions of Kashmir maps in Indian perspective | |||
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* - Article by ] that explains ]'s revision of Indian map | |||
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*When ] released a map in Windows 95 and MapPoint 2002, a controversy was raised because it did not show all of Kashmir as part of India as per Indian claim | |||
{{wikivoyage|Kashmir}} | |||
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{{Regions and administrative territories of Kashmir}} | |||
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Latest revision as of 18:58, 18 December 2024
Region in South AsiaFor other uses, see Kashmir (disambiguation) and Kasmir (disambiguation). Not to be confused with Kashmar.
34°30′N 76°30′E / 34.5°N 76.5°E / 34.5; 76.5
Kashmir (/ˈkæʃmɪər/ KASH-meer or /kæʃˈmɪər/ kash-MEER) is the northernmost geographical region of the Indian subcontinent. Until the mid-19th century, the term "Kashmir" denoted only the Kashmir Valley between the Great Himalayas and the Pir Panjal Range. The term has since come to encompass a larger area that includes the India-administered territories of Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh, the Pakistan-administered territories of Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan, and the Chinese-administered territories of Aksai Chin and the Trans-Karakoram Tract.
In 1820, the Sikh Empire, under Ranjit Singh, annexed Kashmir. In 1846, after the Sikh defeat in the First Anglo-Sikh War, and upon the purchase of the region from the British under the Treaty of Amritsar, the Raja of Jammu, Gulab Singh, became the new ruler of Kashmir. The rule of his descendants, under the paramountcy (or tutelage) of the British Crown, lasted until the Partition of India in 1947, when the former princely state of the British Indian Empire became a disputed territory, now administered by three countries: China, India, and Pakistan.
Etymology
The word Kashmir is thought to have been derived from Sanskrit and was referred to as káśmīra. A popular local etymology of Kashmira is that it is land desiccated from water.
An alternative etymology derives the name from the name of the Vedic sage Kashyapa who is believed to have settled people in this land. Accordingly, Kashmir would be derived from either kashyapa-mir (Kashyapa's Lake) or kashyapa-meru (Kashyapa's Mountain).
The word has been referenced to in a Hindu scripture mantra worshipping the Hindu goddess Sharada and is mentioned to have resided in the land of kashmira, or which might have been a reference to the Sharada Peeth.
The Ancient Greeks called the region Kasperia, which has been identified with Kaspapyros of Hecataeus of Miletus (apud Stephanus of Byzantium) and Kaspatyros of Herodotus (3.102, 4.44). Kashmir is also believed to be the country meant by Ptolemy's Kaspeiria. The earliest text which directly mentions the name Kashmir is in Ashtadhyayi written by the Sanskrit grammarian Pāṇini during the 5th century BC. Pāṇini called the people of Kashmir Kashmirikas. Some other early references to Kashmir can also be found in Mahabharata in Sabha Parva and in puranas like Matsya Purana, Vayu Purana, Padma Purana and Vishnu Purana and Vishnudharmottara Purana.
Huientsang, the Buddhist scholar and Chinese traveller, called Kashmir kia-shi-milo, while some other Chinese accounts referred to Kashmir as ki-pin (or Chipin or Jipin) and ache-pin.
Cashmeer is an archaic spelling of modern Kashmir, and in some countries it is still spelled this way. Kashmir is called Cachemire in French, Cachemira in Spanish, Caxemira in Portuguese, Caixmir in Catalan, Casmiria in Latin, Cașmir in Romanian, and Cashmir in Occitan.
In the Kashmiri language, Kashmir itself is known as Kasheer.
Terminology
The Government of India and Indian sources refer to the territory under Pakistan control as "Pakistan-occupied Kashmir" ("POK"). The Government of Pakistan and Pakistani sources refer to the portion of Kashmir administered by India as "Indian-occupied Kashmir" ("IOK") or "Indian-held Kashmir" (IHK); The terms "Pakistan-administered Kashmir" and "India-administered Kashmir" are often used by neutral sources for the parts of the Kashmir region controlled by each country.
History
For a history of the region including the pre-19th century period, see History of Kashmir, History of Gilgit-Baltistan, and History of Ladakh.In the first half of the first millennium, the Kashmir region became an important centre of Hinduism and later of Buddhism. During the 7th-14th centuries, the region was ruled by a series of Hindu dynasties, and Kashmir Shaivism arose. In 1320, Rinchan Shah became the first Muslim ruler of Kashmir, inaugurating the Kashmir Sultanate. The region was part of the Mughal Empire from 1586 to 1751, and thereafter, until 1820, of the Afghan Durrani Empire.
Sikh rule
In 1819, the Kashmir Valley passed from the control of the Durrani Empire of Afghanistan to the conquering armies of the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh of the Punjab, thus ending four centuries of Muslim rule under the Mughals and the Afghan regime. As the Kashmiris had suffered under the Afghans, they initially welcomed the new Sikh rulers. However, the Sikh governors turned out to be hard taskmasters, and Sikh rule was generally considered oppressive, protected perhaps by the remoteness of Kashmir from the capital of the Sikh Empire in Lahore. The Sikhs enacted a number of anti-Muslim laws, which included handing out death sentences for cow slaughter, closing down the Jamia Masjid in Srinagar, and banning the adhan, the public Muslim call to prayer. Kashmir had also now begun to attract European visitors, several of whom wrote of the abject poverty of the vast Muslim peasantry and of the exorbitant taxes under the Sikhs. High taxes, according to some contemporary accounts, had depopulated large tracts of the countryside, allowing only one-sixteenth of the cultivable land to be cultivated. Many Kashmiri peasants migrated to the plains of the Punjab. However, after a famine in 1832, the Sikhs reduced the land tax to half the produce of the land and also began to offer interest-free loans to farmers; Kashmir became the second highest revenue earner for the Sikh Empire. During this time Kashmir shawls became known worldwide, attracting many buyers, especially in the West.
The state of Jammu, which had been on the ascendant after the decline of the Mughal Empire, came under the sway of the Sikhs in 1770. Further in 1808, it was fully conquered by Maharaja Ranjit Singh. Gulab Singh, then a youngster in the House of Jammu, enrolled in the Sikh troops and, by distinguishing himself in campaigns, gradually rose in power and influence. In 1822, he was anointed as the Raja of Jammu. Along with his able general Zorawar Singh Kahluria, he conquered and subdued Rajouri (1821), Kishtwar (1821), Suru valley and Kargil (1835), Ladakh (1834–1840), and Baltistan (1840), thereby surrounding the Kashmir Valley. He became a wealthy and influential noble in the Sikh court.
Kashmir dispute
Princely state
Main article: Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)In 1845, the First Anglo-Sikh War broke out. According to The Imperial Gazetteer of India:
Gulab Singh contrived to hold himself aloof till the battle of Sobraon (1846), when he appeared as a useful mediator and the trusted advisor of Sir Henry Lawrence. Two treaties were concluded. By the first the State of Lahore (i.e. West Punjab) handed over to the British, as equivalent for one crore indemnity, the hill countries between the rivers Beas and Indus; by the second the British made over to Gulab Singh for 75 lakhs all the hilly or mountainous country situated to the east of the Indus and the west of the Ravi i.e. the Vale of Kashmir.
Drafted by a treaty and a bill of sale, and constituted between 1820 and 1858, the Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu (as it was first called) combined disparate regions, religions, and ethnicities: to the east, Ladakh was ethnically and culturally Tibetan and its inhabitants practised Buddhism; to the south, Jammu had a mixed population of Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs. In the heavily populated central Kashmir valley, the population was overwhelmingly Muslim—mostly Sunni, however, there was also a small but influential Hindu minority, the brahmin Kashmiri Pandits. To the northeast, sparsely populated Baltistan had a population ethnically related to that of Ladakh, but which practised Shia Islam. To the north, also sparsely populated, Gilgit Agency was an area of diverse, mostly Shia groups, and, to the west, Punch was populated mostly by Muslims of a different ethnicity than that of the Kashmir valley. After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, in which Kashmir sided with the British, and the subsequent assumption of direct rule by Great Britain, the princely state of Kashmir came under the suzerainty of the British Crown.
In the British census of India of 1941, Kashmir registered a Muslim majority population of 77%, a Hindu population of 20% and a sparse population of Buddhists and Sikhs comprising the remaining 3%. That same year, Prem Nath Bazaz, a Kashmiri Pandit journalist wrote: "The poverty of the Muslim masses is appalling. ... Most are landless laborers, working as serfs for absentee landlords ... Almost the whole brunt of official corruption is borne by the Muslim masses." Under Hindu rule, Muslims faced hefty taxation and discrimination in the legal system, and were forced into labor without any wages. Conditions in the princely state caused a significant migration of people from the Kashmir Valley to the Punjab of British India. For almost a century, until the census, a small Hindu elite had ruled over a vast and impoverished Muslim peasantry. Driven into docility by chronic indebtedness to landlords and moneylenders, having no education besides, nor awareness of rights, the Muslim peasants had no political representation until the 1930s.
1947 and 1948
Further information: Kashmir conflict, Timeline of the Kashmir conflict, 1947 Poonch Rebellion, Indo-Pakistani War of 1947, 1947 Jammu massacres, and 1947 Mirpur massacreRanbir Singh's grandson Hari Singh, who had ascended the throne of Kashmir in 1925, was the reigning monarch in 1947 at the conclusion of British rule of the subcontinent and the subsequent partition of the British Indian Empire into the newly independent Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan. According to Burton Stein's History of India,
Kashmir was neither as large nor as old an independent state as Hyderabad; it had been created rather off-handedly by the British after the first defeat of the Sikhs in 1846, as a reward to a former official who had sided with the British. The Himalayan kingdom was connected to India through a district of the Punjab, but its population was 77 per cent Muslim and it shared a boundary with Pakistan. Hence, it was anticipated that the maharaja would accede to Pakistan when the British paramountcy ended on 14–15 August. When he hesitated to do this, Pakistan launched a guerrilla onslaught meant to frighten its ruler into submission. Instead the Maharaja appealed to Mountbatten for assistance, and the governor-general agreed on the condition that the ruler accede to India. Indian soldiers entered Kashmir and drove the Pakistani-sponsored irregulars from all but a small section of the state. The United Nations was then invited to mediate the quarrel. The UN mission insisted that the opinion of Kashmiris must be ascertained, while India insisted that no referendum could occur until all of the state had been cleared of irregulars.
In the last days of 1948, a ceasefire was agreed under UN auspices. However, since the plebiscite demanded by the UN was never conducted, relations between India and Pakistan soured, and eventually led to two more wars over Kashmir in 1965 and 1999.
Current status and political divisions
India has control of about half the area of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, which comprises Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh, while Pakistan controls a third of the region, divided into two provinces, Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan. Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh are administered by India as union territories. They formed a single state until 5 August 2019, when the state was bifurcated and its limited autonomy was revoked.
According to Encyclopædia Britannica:
Although there was a clear Muslim majority in Kashmir before the 1947 partition and its economic, cultural, and geographic contiguity with the Muslim-majority area of the Punjab (in Pakistan) could be convincingly demonstrated, the political developments during and after the partition resulted in a division of the region. Pakistan was left with territory that, although basically Muslim in character, was sparsely populated, relatively inaccessible, and economically underdeveloped. The largest Muslim group, situated in the Valley of Kashmir and estimated to number more than half the population of the entire region, lay in India-administered territory, with its former outlets via the Jhelum valley route blocked.
The eastern region of the former princely state of Kashmir is also involved in a boundary dispute that began in the late 19th century and continues into the 21st. Although some boundary agreements were signed between Great Britain, Afghanistan and Russia over the northern borders of Kashmir, China never accepted these agreements, and China's official position has not changed following the communist revolution of 1949 that established the People's Republic of China. By the mid-1950s the Chinese army had entered the north-east portion of Ladakh.
By 1956–57 they had completed a military road through the Aksai Chin area to provide better communication between Xinjiang and western Tibet. India's belated discovery of this road led to border clashes between the two countries that culminated in the Sino-Indian War of October 1962.
The region is divided amongst three countries in a territorial dispute: Pakistan controls the northwest portion (Northern Areas and Kashmir), India controls the central and southern portion (Jammu and Kashmir) and Ladakh, and the People's Republic of China controls the northeastern portion (Aksai Chin and the Trans-Karakoram Tract). India controls the majority of the Siachen Glacier area, including the Saltoro Ridge passes, whilst Pakistan controls the lower territory just southwest of the Saltoro Ridge. India controls 101,338 km (39,127 sq mi) of the disputed territory, Pakistan controls 85,846 km (33,145 sq mi), and the People's Republic of China controls the remaining 37,555 km (14,500 sq mi).
Jammu and Azad Kashmir lie south and west of the Pir Panjal range, and are under Indian and Pakistani control respectively. These are populous regions. Gilgit-Baltistan, formerly known as the Northern Areas, is a group of territories in the extreme north, bordered by the Karakoram, the western Himalayas, the Pamir, and the Hindu Kush ranges. With its administrative centre in the town of Gilgit, the Northern Areas cover an area of 72,971 square kilometres (28,174 sq mi) and have an estimated population approaching 1 million (10 lakhs).
Ladakh is between the Kunlun mountain range in the north and the main Great Himalayas to the south. Capital towns of the region are Leh and Kargil. It is under Indian administration and was part of the state of Jammu and Kashmir until 2019. It is one of the most sparsely populated regions in the area and is mainly inhabited by people of Indo-Aryan and Tibetan descent. Aksai Chin is a vast high-altitude desert of salt that reaches altitudes up to 5,000 metres (16,000 ft). Geographically part of the Tibetan Plateau, Aksai Chin is referred to as the Soda Plain. The region is almost uninhabited, and has no permanent settlements.
Though these regions are in practice administered by their respective claimants, neither India nor Pakistan has formally recognised the accession of the areas claimed by the other. India claims those areas, including the area "ceded" to China by Pakistan in the Trans-Karakoram Tract in 1963, are a part of its territory, while Pakistan claims the entire region excluding Aksai Chin and Trans-Karakoram Tract. The two countries have fought several declared wars over the territory. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 established the rough boundaries of today, with Pakistan holding roughly one-third of Kashmir, and India one-half, with a dividing line of control established by the United Nations. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 resulted in a stalemate and a UN-negotiated ceasefire.
Geography
The Kashmir region lies between latitudes 32° and 36° N, and longitudes 74° and 80° E. It has an area of 68,000 sq mi (180,000 km). It is bordered to the north and east by China (Xinjiang and Tibet), to the northwest by Afghanistan (Wakhan Corridor), to the west by Pakistan (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Punjab) and to the south by India (Himachal Pradesh and Punjab).
The topography of Kashmir is mostly mountainous. It is traversed mainly by the Western Himalayas. The Himalayas terminate in the western boundary of Kashmir at Nanga Parbat. Kashmir is traversed by three rivers namely Indus, Jhelum and Chenab. These river basins divide the region into three valleys separated by high mountain ranges. The Indus valley forms the north and north-eastern portion of the region which include bare and desolate areas of Baltistan and Ladakh. The upper portion of the Jhelum valley forms the proper Vale of Kashmir surrounded by high mountain ranges. The Chenab valley forms the southern portion of the Kashmir region with its denuded hills towards the south. It includes almost all of the Jammu region. High altitude lakes are frequent at high elevations. Lower down in the Vale of Kashmir there are many freshwater lakes and large areas of swamplands which include Wular Lake, Dal Lake and Hokersar near Srinagar.
To the north and northeast, beyond the Great Himalayas, the region is traversed by the Karakoram mountains. To the northwest lies the Hindu Kush mountain range. The upper Indus River separates the Himalayas from the Karakoram. The Karakoram is the most heavily glaciated part of the world outside the polar regions. The Siachen Glacier at 76 km (47 mi) and the Biafo Glacier at 63 km (39 mi) rank as the world's second and third longest glaciers outside the polar regions. Karakoram has four eight-thousander mountain peaks with K2, the second highest peak in the world at 8,611 m (28,251 ft).
The Indus River system forms the drainage basin of the Kashmir region. The river enters the region in Ladakh at its southeastern corner from the Tibetan Plateau, and flows northwest to run a course through the entire Ladakh and Gilgit-Baltistan. Almost all the rivers originating in these region are part of the Indus river system. After reaching the end of the Great Himalayan range, the Indus turns a corner and flows southwest into the Punjab plains. The Jhelum and Chenab rivers also follow a course roughly parallel to this, and join the Indus river in southern Punjab plains in Pakistan.
The geographical features of the Kashmir region differ considerably from one part to another. The lowest part of the region consists of the plains of Jammu at the southwestern corner, which continue into the plains of Punjab at an elevation of below 1000 feet. Mountains begin at 2000 feet, then raising to 3000–4000 feet in the "Outer Hills", a rugged country with ridges and long narrow valleys. Next within the tract lie the Middle Mountains which are 8000–10,000 feet in height with ramifying valleys. Adjacent to these hills are the lofty Great Himalayan ranges (14000–15000 feet) which divide the drainage of the Chenab and Jehlum from that of the Indus. Beyond this range lies a wide tract of mountainous country of 17000–22000 feet in Ladakh and Baltistan.
Climate
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Kashmir has a different climate for every region owing to the great variation in altitude. The temperatures ranges from the tropical heat of the Punjab summer to the intensity of the cold which keeps the perpetual snow on the mountains. Jammu Division, excluding the upper parts of the Chenab Valley, features a humid subtropical climate. The Vale of Kashmir has a moderate climate. The Astore Valley and some parts of Gilgit-Baltistan features a semi-Tibetan climate. While as the other parts of Gilgit-Baltistan and Ladakh have Tibetan climate which is considered as almost rainless climate.
The southwestern Kashmir which includes much of the Jammu province and Muzaffarabad falls within the reach of Indian monsoon. The Pir Panjal Range acts as an effective barrier and blocks these monsoon tracts from reaching the main Kashmir Valley and the Himalayan slopes. These areas of the region receive much of their precipitation from the wind currents of the Arabian Sea. The Himalayan slope and the Pir Panjal witness greatest snow melting from March until June. These variations in snow melt and rainfall have led to destructive inundations of the main valley. One instance of such Kashmir flood of a larger proportion is recorded in the 12th-century book Rajatarangini. A single cloudburst in July 1935 caused the upper Jehlum river level to rise 11 feet. The 2014 Kashmir floods inundated the Kashmir city of Srinagar and submerged hundreds of other villages.
Flora and fauna
Alpine flowers at Gangabal Lake below Mount Harmukh in the northwestern Himalayan rangeThe Zaniskari is a breed of horse in Ladakh, well adapted to the hypoxic Kashmiri environment Shepherding in the Deosai PlainsA female snow leopard which was rescued in 2012 from a partly frozen river stream in the Wadkhun area of Sust in the Karakoram mountain range, now in the Naltar Wildlife SanctuaryKashmir has a recorded forest area of 20,230 square kilometres (7,810 sq mi) along with some national parks and reserves. The forests vary according to the climatic conditions and the altitude. Kashmir forests range from the tropical deciduous forests in the foothills of Jammu and Muzafarabad, to the temperate forests throughout the Vale of Kashmir and to the alpine grasslands and high altitude meadows in Gilgit-Baltistan and Ladakh. The Kashmir region has four well defined zones of vegetation in the tree growth, due to the difference in elevation. The tropical forests up to 1500 m, are known as the Phulai (Acacia modesta) and Olive (Olea cuspid ata) Zone. There occur semi-deciduous species of Shorea robusta, Acacia catechu, Dalbergia sissoo, Albizia lebbeck, Garuga pinnata, Terminalia bellirica and T. tomentosa and Pinus roxburghii are found at higher elevations. The temperate zone between (1,500–3,500 m) is referred as the Chir Pine (Finns longifolia). This zone is dominated by oaks (Quercus spp.) and Rhododendron spp. The Blue Pine (Finns excelsa) Zone with Cedrus deodara, Abies pindrow and Picea smithiana occur at elevations between 2,800 and 3,500 m. The Birch (Betula utilis) Zone has Herbaceous genera of Anemone, Geranium, Iris, Lloydia, Potentilla and Primula interspersed with dry dwarf alpine scrubs of Berberis, Cotoneaster, Juniperus and Rhododendron are prevalent in alpine grasslands at 3,500 m and above.
Kashmir is referred as a beauty spot of the medicinal and herbaceous flora in the Himalayas. There are hundreds of different species of wild flowers recorded in the alpine meadows of the region. The botanical garden and the tulip gardens of Srinagar built in the Zabarwans grow 300 breeds of flora and 60 varieties of tulips respectively. The later is considered as the largest Tulip Garden of Asia.
Kashmir region is home to rare species of animals, many of which are protected by sanctuaries and reserves. The Dachigam National Park in the Valley holds the last viable population of Kashmir stag (Hangul) and the largest population of black bear in Asia. In Gilgit-Baltistan the Deosai National Park is designated to protect the largest population of Himalayan brown bears in the western Himalayas. Snow leopards are found in high density In the Hemis National Park in Ladakh. The region is home to musk deer, markhor, leopard cat, jungle cat, red fox, jackal, Himalayan wolf, serow, Himalayan yellow-throated marten, long-tailed marmot, Indian porcupine, Himalayan mouse-hare, langur and Himalayan weasel. At least 711 bird species are recorded in the valley alone with 31 classified as globally threatened species.
Demographics
Colonial era
In the 1901 Census of the British Indian Empire, the population of the princely state of Kashmir and Jammu was 2,905,578. Of these, 2,154,695 (74.16%) were Muslims, 689,073 (23.72%) Hindus, 25,828 (0.89%) Sikhs, and 35,047 (1.21%) Buddhists (implying 935 (0.032%) others).
The Hindus were found mainly in Jammu, where they constituted a little less than 60% of the population. In the Kashmir Valley, the Hindus represented "524 in every 10,000 of the population (i.e. 5.24%), and in the frontier wazarats of Ladhakh and Gilgit only 94 out of every 10,000 persons (0.94%)." In the same Census of 1901, in the Kashmir Valley, the total population was recorded to be 1,157,394, of which the Muslim population was 1,083,766, or 93.6% and the Hindu population 60,641. Among the Hindus of Jammu province, who numbered 626,177 (or 90.87% of the Hindu population of the princely state), the most important castes recorded in the census were "Brahmans (186,000), the Rajputs (167,000), the Khattris (48,000) and the Thakkars (93,000)."
In the 1911 Census of the British Indian Empire, the total population of Kashmir and Jammu had increased to 3,158,126. Of these, 2,398,320 (75.94%) were Muslims, 696,830 (22.06%) Hindus, 31,658 (1%) Sikhs, and 36,512 (1.16%) Buddhists. In the last census of British India in 1941, the total population of Kashmir and Jammu (which as a result of the Second World War, was estimated from the 1931 census) was 3,945,000. Of these, the total Muslim population was 2,997,000 (75.97%), the Hindu population was 808,000 (20.48%), and the Sikh 55,000 (1.39%).
The Kashmiri Pandits, the only Hindus of the Kashmir valley, who had stably constituted approximately 4 to 5% of the population of the valley during Dogra rule (1846–1947), and 20% of whom had left the Kashmir valley to other parts of India in the 1950s, underwent a complete exodus in the 1990s due to the Kashmir insurgency. According to a number of authors, approximately 100,000 of the total Kashmiri Pandit population of 140,000 left the valley during that decade. Other authors have suggested a higher figure for the exodus, ranging from the entire population of over 150 thousand, to 190 thousand of a total Pandit population of 200 thousand (200,000), to a number as high as 300 thousand (300,000).
Census Year | Jammu Province | Kashmir Province | Frontier Regions | Jammu & Kashmir Princely State | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pop. | % | Pop. | % | Pop. | % | Pop. | % | |
1901 | 1,521,307 | 52.36% | 1,157,394 | 39.83% | 226,877 | 7.81% | 2,905,578 | 100% |
1911 | 1,597,865 | 50.6% | 1,295,201 | 41.01% | 265,060 | 8.39% | 3,158,126 | 100% |
1921 | 1,640,259 | 49.4% | 1,407,086 | 42.38% | 273,173 | 8.23% | 3,320,518 | 100% |
1931 | 1,788,441 | 49.05% | 1,569,218 | 43.04% | 288,584 | 7.91% | 3,646,243 | 100% |
1941 | 1,981,433 | 49.27% | 1,728,705 | 42.99% | 311,478 | 7.75% | 4,021,616 | 100% |
Religious group |
1901 | 1911 | 1921 | 1931 | 1941 | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pop. | % | Pop. | % | Pop. | % | Pop. | % | Pop. | % | |
Islam | 2,154,695 | 74.16% | 2,398,320 | 75.94% | 2,548,514 | 76.75% | 2,817,636 | 77.28% | 3,101,247 | 77.11% |
Hinduism | 689,073 | 23.72% | 690,390 | 21.86% | 692,641 | 20.86% | 736,222 | 20.19% | 809,165 | 20.12% |
Buddhism | 35,047 | 1.21% | 36,512 | 1.16% | 37,685 | 1.13% | 38,724 | 1.06% | 40,696 | 1.01% |
Sikhism | 25,828 | 0.89% | 31,553 | 1% | 39,507 | 1.19% | 50,662 | 1.39% | 65,903 | 1.64% |
Jainism | 442 | 0.02% | 345 | 0.01% | 529 | 0.02% | 597 | 0.02% | 910 | 0.02% |
Christianity | 422 | 0.01% | 975 | 0.03% | 1,634 | 0.05% | 2,263 | 0.06% | 3,509 | 0.09% |
Zoroastrianism | 11 | 0% | 31 | 0% | 7 | 0% | 5 | 0% | 29 | 0% |
Tribal | — | — | — | — | — | — | 134 | 0% | 51 | 0% |
Judaism | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 10 | 0% |
Others | 60 | 0% | 0 | 0% | 1 | 0% | 0 | 0% | 95 | 0% |
Total population | 2,905,578 | 100% | 3,158,126 | 100% | 3,320,518 | 100% | 3,646,243 | 100% | 4,021,616 | 100% |
Note: The Princely State of Jammu and Kashmir includes the contemporary administrative divisions of Jammu, Kashmir, Ladakh, Azad Kashmir, and Gilgit-Baltistan. |
Modern era
People in Jammu speak Hindi, Punjabi and Dogri, the Kashmir Valley people speak Kashmiri, and people in the sparsely inhabited Ladakh speak Tibetan and Balti.
The population of India-administered union territories of Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh combined is 12,541,302; that of Pakistan-administered territory of Azad Kashmir is 4,045,366; and that of Gilgit-Baltistan is 1,492,924.
Administered by | Area | Population | % Muslim | % Hindu | % Buddhist | % other |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
India | Kashmir Valley | ~4 million (4 million) | 95% | 4% | – | – |
Jammu | ~3 million (3 million) | 30% | 66% | – | 4% | |
Ladakh | ~0.25 million (250,000) | 46% | 12% | 40% | 2% | |
Pakistan | Azad Kashmir | ~4 million (4 million) | 100% | – | – | – |
Gilgit-Baltistan | ~2 million (2 million) | 99% | – | – | – | |
China | Aksai Chin | – | – | – | – | – |
Trans-Karakoram | – | – | – | – | – | |
- A Muslim shawl-making family shown in Cashmere shawl manufactory, 1867, chromolithograph, William Simpson
- A group of Pandits, or Brahmin priests, in Kashmir, photographed by an unknown photographer in the 1890s
- Brokpa women from Kargil, northern Ladakh, in local costumes
Economy
Further information: Azad Kashmir § Economy, and Jammu and Kashmir (state) § EconomyKashmir's economy is centred around agriculture. Traditionally the staple crop of the valley was rice, which formed the chief food of the people. In addition, Indian corn, wheat, barley and oats were also grown. Given its temperate climate, it is suited for crops like asparagus, artichoke, seakale, broad beans, scarletrunners, beetroot, cauliflower and cabbage. Fruit trees are common in the valley, and the cultivated orchards yield pears, apples, peaches, and cherries. The chief trees are deodar, firs and pines, chenar or plane, maple, birch and walnut, apple, cherry.
Historically, Kashmir became known worldwide when Cashmere wool was exported to other regions and nations (exports have ceased due to decreased abundance of the cashmere goat and increased competition from China). Kashmiris are well adept at knitting and making Pashmina shawls, silk carpets, rugs, kurtas, and pottery. Saffron, too, is grown in Kashmir. Srinagar is known for its silver-work, papier-mâché, wood-carving, and the weaving of silk. The economy was badly damaged by the 2005 Kashmir earthquake which, as of 8 October 2005, resulted in over 70,000 deaths in the Pakistan-administered territory of Azad Kashmir and around 1,500 deaths in the India-administered territory of Jammu and Kashmir.
Srinagar, the largest city of KashmirTransport
Transport is predominantly by air or road vehicles in the region. Kashmir has a 135 km (84 mi) long modern railway line that started in October 2009, and was last extended in 2013 and connects Baramulla, in the western part of Kashmir, to Srinagar and Banihal. It is expected to link Kashmir to the rest of India after the construction of the railway line from Katra to Banihal is completed.
In culture
See also: Kashmiri handicraftsIrish poet Thomas Moore's 1817 romantic poem Lalla Rookh is credited with having made Kashmir (spelt Cashmere in the poem) "a household term in Anglophone societies", conveying the idea that it was a kind of paradise.
See also
- 1941 Census of Jammu and Kashmir
- Human rights abuses in Kashmir
- Kashmiris
- List of territorial disputes
Notes
References
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Kashmir history
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Historical sources
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