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| {{short description|Ruling and warrior class of the Hindu varna system}} | |||
| {{Hinduism_small}} | |||
| {{For|the Bollywood film of the same name|Kshatriya (film)}} | |||
| {{Refimprove|date=February 2008}} | |||
| {{pp|small=yes}} | |||
| :''For the ] film of the same name see '']'' | |||
| {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2022}} | |||
| ], a kshatriya of the ] in Hindu literature.]] | |||
| {{Hinduism|expanded=Society}}'''Kshatriya''' ({{Langx|sa|क्षत्रिय|translit=Kṣatriya}}) (from Sanskrit ''kṣatra'', "rule, authority"; also called '''Rajanya''')<ref> | |||
| *{{cite book|title=Political Violence in Ancient India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t6A4DwAAQBAJ&dq=kshatriya+and+rajanya+are+synonyms&pg=PA23|author=]|page=23|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017| isbn=9780674975279 }} | |||
| *{{cite book|title=The History of India|url= | |||
| https://books.google.com/books?id=DAwmUphO6eAC&dq=Kshatriya+formerly+known+as+rajanya&pg=PA207|page=207|author=John McLeod|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=2002| isbn=9780313314599 }}</ref> is one of the four ] (social orders) of ] society and is associated with the ] ].{{Sfn|Thapar|2004|p=63}} The ] term ''kṣatriyaḥ'' is used in the context of later ] society wherein members were organised into four classes: '']'', kshatriya, ''],'' and '']''.<ref>Bujor Avari (2007). '''', p. 89</ref> | |||
| ==History== | |||
| '''Kshatriya''' ({{lang-hi|क्षत्रिय}}, ''{{IAST|kṣatriya}}'' from {{lang-sa|क्षत्र}}, ''{{IAST|kṣatra}}'') is one of the four ] (social orders) in ]. It constitutes the military and ruling order of the traditional Vedic-Hindu social system as outlined by the Vedas and the ]. Lord ], Lord ], Lord ] and Lord ] all belonged to this social order. | |||
| ===Early Rigvedic tribal monarchy=== | |||
| Initially in ancient ], this position was achieved on the merits of a person's aptitude (''guna''), conduct (''karma''), and nature (''swabhava''). The earliest Vedic literature listed the Kshatriya (holders of kṣatra, or authority) as first in rank, then the ]s (priests and teachers of law), next the ] (merchant-traders), and finally the ] (artisans and labourers). Movements of individuals and groups from one class to another, both upward and downward, were not uncommon; a rise in status even to the rank of Kshatriya was a recognized reward for outstanding service to the rulers of the day.<ref> "Kshatriya." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 June 2008</ref> Over the years it became ]. In modern times, the Kshatriya varna includes a broad class of caste groups, differing considerably in status and function but united by their claims to rulership, the pursuit of war, or the possession of land. | |||
| The administrative machinery in the Vedic India was headed by a tribal king called a Rajan whose position may or may not have been hereditary.<ref name=":VedicIndiaRenouKshatriyas">{{Cite book|last=Renou|first=Louis|url=http://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.6854|title=Vedic India|date=1957|pages=130}}</ref> The king may have been elected in a tribal assembly (called Samiti), which included women.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Shori|first=Maj Gen A. K.|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FRCiBQAAQBAJ&dq=The+king+was+elected+in+a+tribal+assembly+(called+Samiti)+which+%22included+women%22.&pg=PT87|title=Seven Shades of Rama|publisher=Notion Press|isbn=978-93-84391-74-4|language=en|chapter=Fifth Shade : Rama as A King}}</ref><ref name=":VedicIndiaRenouKshatriyas"/> The Rajan protected the tribe and cattle; was assisted by a priest; and did not maintain a standing army, though in the later period the rulership appears to have risen as a ]. The concept of the fourfold varna system is not yet recorded.<ref name=raj>{{cite book|last=Sharma|first=Ram Sharan|title=India's ancient past|year=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=the University of Michigan|isbn= 9780195667141|pages=110–112}}</ref> | |||
| ===Later Vedic period=== | |||
| The legend that the Kshatriya were destroyed by ], the sixth reincarnation of ], as a punishment for their tyranny is thought by some scholars to reflect a long struggle for supremacy between priests and rulers that ended in victory for the former. By the end of the Vedic era, the Brahmins were supreme, and the Kshatriya had fallen to second place.<ref>Encyclopædia Britannica Online</ref> | |||
| The hymn '']'' to the '']'' describes the symbolic creation of the four varna-s through ] sacrifice (yajña). Some scholars consider the Purusha Sukta to be a late interpolation into the Rigveda based on the neological character of the composition, as compared to the more archaic style of the Vedic literature.<ref name=":RigvedaJamisonBreretonPurushaSukta">{{Cite book|last1=Jamison|first1=Stephanie W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1-PRAwAAQBAJ|title=The Rigveda: The Earliest Religious Poetry of India|last2=Brereton|first2=Joel P.|date=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-937018-4|pages=57–58|language=en}}</ref> Since not all Indians were fully regulated under the varna in the Vedic society,<ref>David Kean (2007). , p. 26. Ashgate Publishing Ltd.</ref> the Purusha Sukta was supposedly composed in order to secure Vedic sanction for the heredity caste scheme.<ref name=":RigvedaJamisonBreretonPurushaSukta"/> An alternate explanation is that the word 'Shudra' does not occur anywhere else in the ''Rig-veda'' except the ''Purusha Sukta'', leading some scholars to believe the ''Purusha Sukta'' was a composition of the later Rig-vedic period itself to denote, legitimize and sanctify an oppressive and exploitative class structure that had already come into existence.<ref> | |||
| Jayantanuja Bandyopadhyaya (2007). , pp. 37–47. Anthem Press.</ref> | |||
| Although the ''Purusha Sukta'' uses the term ''rajanya'', not ''Kshatriya'', it is considered the first instance in the extant Vedic texts where four social classes are mentioned for the first time together.<ref name="Roy">Kumkum Roy (2011). , p. 148. Primus Books.</ref> Usage of the term ''Rajanya'' possibly indicates the 'kinsmen of the Rajan' (i.e., kinsmen of the ruler) had emerged as a distinct social group then,<ref name="Roy"/> such that by the end of the Vedic period, the term ''rajanya'' was replaced by ''Kshatriya''; where ''rajanya'' stresses kinship with the ''Rajan'' and ''Kshatriya'' denotes power over a specific domain.<ref name="Roy"/> The term rajanya unlike the word Kshatriya essentially denoted the status within a lineage. Whereas ''Kshatra'', means "ruling; one of the ruling order".<ref>{{cite book | |||
| == Etymology == | |||
| |last = Turner | |||
| In ], it is derived from ''kšatra'', meaning "dominion, power, government" from a root ''kšī'' "to rule, govern, possess". ] ''xšāyaθiya'' ("emperor") and ''xšaθra'' ("realm") are related to it, as are the ] words '']'' ("emperor") and ''šahr'' ("city", "realm"). The ] word for "king", ''kasat'', and the ] word for "knight" or "warrior", ''kesatria'' or ''satria'', are also derived from it. The term denotes aristocratic status. | |||
| |first = Sir Ralph Lilley | |||
| |author-link = Ralph Lilley Turner | |||
| |author2 = Dorothy Rivers Turner | |||
| |title = A Comparative Dictionary of the Indo-Aryan Languages. | |||
| |url = http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.1:1:81.soas | |||
| |access-date = 23 October 2011 | |||
| |edition = Accompanied by three supplementary volumes: ''indexes'', compiled by Dorothy Rivers Turner: 1969. – ''Phonetic analysis'': 1971. – ''Addenda et corrigenda'': 1985. | |||
| |orig-year = 1962 | |||
| |date = January 2006 | |||
| |publisher = Oxford University Press | |||
| |location = London | |||
| |pages = 189–190 | |||
| }}{{Dead link|date=May 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> | |||
| Jaiswal points out the term ''Brahman'' rarely occurs in the Rig-veda with the exception of the ''Purusha Sukta'' and may not have been used for the priestly class.<ref name="Roy"/> Based on the authority of ], ], ] and the '']'', Jayaswal believes that Rajanya was the name of political people and that the Rajanyas were, therefore, a ] (with an elected ruler).<ref name="choudhary"> | |||
| Radhakrishna Choudhary (1964). The Vrātyas in Ancient India, Volume 38 of Chowkhamba Sanskrit studies, p. 125. Sanskrit Series Office.</ref> Some examples were the ] and ] Rajanyas who followed the system of elected rulers.<ref name="Roy"/> Ram Sharan Sharma details how the central chief was elected by various clan chiefs or lineage chiefs with increasing polarisation between the ''rajanya'' (aristocracy helping the ruler) and the ''vis'' (peasants) leading to a distinction between the chiefs as a separate class (''raja, rajanya, kshatra, kshatriya'') on one hand and ''vis'' (clan peasantry) on the other hand.<ref name="sharma">Ram Sharan Sharma (1991). . Motilal Banarsidass Publications.</ref> | |||
| The term kshatriya comes from ''kshatra'' and implies temporal authority and power which was based less on being a successful leader in battle and more on the tangible power of laying claim to sovereignty over a territory, and symbolising ownership over clan lands. This later gave rise to the idea of kingship.<ref name=raj1>{{cite book|last=Reddy|title=General Studies History 4 Upsc|year=2005|publisher=Tata McGraw-Hill Education|isbn= 9780070604476|pages=78, 79, 33, 80, 27, 123}}</ref> | |||
| In the early ], the warrior caste was called ''rājanya'' or ''kšatrīya''. The former was an adjectival form of ''rājan'' "ruler, king" from a root ''rāj'' "to rule", cognate to the ] ''rex'' "king", the German '']'' "empire/realm", and the Thai ''racha'' "king". In Persia, the ]s, or "kshatrapa", were the governors, or "protectors", of the Persian Empire's provinces. | |||
| In the period of the ]s (800 BCE to 700 BCE) there was ambiguity in the position of the varna. In the ''Panchavimsha Brahmana'' (13,4,7), the Rajanya are placed first, followed by Brahmana then Vaishya. In ''Shatapatha Brahmana 13.8.3.11'', the Rajanya are placed second. In ''Shatapatha Brahmana 1.1.4.12'' the order is—Brahmana, Vaishya, Rajanya, Shudra. The order of the Brahmanical tradition—Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra—became fixed from the time of ]s (450 BCE to 100 BCE).<ref>Upinder Singh (2008). . Pearson Education India.</ref> The kshatriya were often considered pre-eminent in Buddhist circles.<ref name=Auboyer>{{cite book|author=Jeanne Auboyer|title=Daily Life in Ancient India|year=1965|publisher=Phoenix Press|isbn=1-84212-591-5|pages=|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinancie0000aubo/page/26}}</ref> Even among Hindu societies they were sometimes at rivalry with the Brahmins, but they generally acknowledged the superiority of the priestly class.<ref name=Auboyer/> The Kshatriyas also began to question the ] of the ], which led to religious ideas developed in the ].{{Sfn|Thapar|2004|p=129, 131}} | |||
| == Holy Warriors == | |||
| === Hindu Ritual Duties=== | |||
| ], brother-- ] and devotee ]. Rama and Lakshmana are always shown to be ready for battle, with bow and arrow, as it is their Kshatriya '']'' to fight. Rama was a ] of ] lineage. He is considered an incarnation of Lord ].]] ]. Krishna, a ] by birth of ] lineage, He is considered another incarnation of Lord ]. In the ] he taught ] about the duty of a ].]] | |||
| The Kshatriyas studied Vedas, gave gifts and performed fire sacrifice.<ref name="ludo14"/> | |||
| {| class="wikitable" | |||
| |+ Vedic duties of twice-born Varnas<ref name="ludo14">{{cite book|author=Ludo Rocher|editor=Donald R. Davis Jr.|title=Studies in Hindu Law and Dharmaśāstra|chapter=9.Caste and occupation in classical India: The normative texts|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dziNBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA205|year=2014|publisher=Anthem Press|pages=205–206|isbn=9781783083152}}</ref> | |||
| |- | |||
| ! !!''Adhyayan''<br />(Study Vedas)!!''Yajana''<br />(performing sacrifice for<br /> one's own benefit)!!Dana<br />(Giving Gifts)!!Adhyapana<br />(Teaching Vedas)!!Yaajana<br />(Acting as Priest<br />for sacrifice)!!''Pratigraha'' (accepting gifts) | |||
| |- | |||
| | Brahmin|| ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ ||✓ ||✓ | |||
| |- | |||
| | Kshatriya|| ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || No||No||No | |||
| |- | |||
| | Vaishya|| ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || No||No||No | |||
| |- | |||
| |- | |||
| |} | |||
| === Mahajanapadas === | |||
| A Hindu ruler was bound by the holy scriptures to govern as a Dharma-Raja (Just Ruler), with the main duties being protection of his subjects and livestock. | |||
| The ''gaṇa sangha'' form of government was an oligarchic republic during the period of the ] (c. 600–300 BCE), that was ruled by Kshatriya clans. However, these kshatriyas did not follow the Vedic religion, and were sometimes called degenerate Kshatriyas or Shudras by Brahmanical sources. The kshatriyas served as representatives in the assembly at the capital, debated various issues put before the assembly.{{Sfn|Thapar|2004|pp=146–150}} Due to the lack of patronage of Vedic Brahmanism, the kshatriyas of the gana sanghas were often patrons of ] and ].{{Sfn|Thapar|2004|p=170}} In the ], Kshatriya is referred as ''khattiya''.<ref>{{cite book|title=Gautama Buddha: The Life and Teachings of The Awakened One |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JKW8CgAAQBAJ&dq=Pali+canon+khattiya+kshatriya&pg=PT223 |page= |publisher=Hachette UK|year=2011|isbn=978-1849169233}}</ref> | |||
| In the kingdoms of the Mahajanapadas, the king claimed kshatriya status through the Vedic religion. While kings claimed to be kshatriya, some kings came from non-kshatriya origins.{{Sfn|Thapar|2004|pp=150–151}} | |||
| *The Rig Veda states: | |||
| :''praja arya jyotiragrah'. RV, VII. 33.17 | |||
| People ruled by Aryans are led by the Divine light. | |||
| King ] of ] is considered the greatest of the Dharma-Rajas: | |||
| :''arya sarva samascaiva sadaiva priyadarsanah'' | |||
| After the Mahajanapada period, most of the prominent royal dynasties in northern ] were not kshatriyas. The ], whose rulers were stated to be shudras, destroyed many kshatriya lineages.{{Sfn|Thapar|2004|pp=155–156}} | |||
| An Aryan who worked for the equality of all, was dear to everyone. Rama is also considered an avatar of ]. | |||
| === Post-Mauryan Kshatriyas === | |||
| *The ] states: | |||
| After the collapse of the ], numerous clan-based polities in Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan claimed kshatriya status.{{Sfn|Thapar|2004|p=211}} | |||
| The ] and ] were considered to be low-status kshatriyas by Brahmin authors.{{Sfn|Thapar|2004|p=227}} | |||
| :''Like the ancient monarch ], father of the human race,'' | |||
| In the third to fourth centuries CE, kingdoms in the ] and ] rivers claimed kshatriya status and performed ] to legitimate themselves as rulers.{{Sfn|Thapar|2004|pp=228–229}} During his visit to India in the 7th century, ] noted that ''kshatriya'' rulers were ruling the kingdoms like Kabul,<ref>{{cite book|title=India Ever Independent|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qvVBDwAAQBAJ&dq=Kabul+kshatriya+hiuen+tsang&pg=PT206|publisher=Balboa Press|year=2017|isbn=978-1504391702|author=Devi Dayal Aggarwal}}</ref> Kosala,<ref>{{cite book |ref=none |last= Mishra|first= Patit Paban|year=2005 |title= Cultural rapprochement between India and Southeast Asia|publisher=National Book Organisation |location= |pages=5–6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P21wAAAAMAAJ|access-date= |isbn=8187521171|quote=Hsuan Tsang mentions the existence of kshatriya rulers by stating that the ruler of Kosala was a kshatriya and follower of Buddhism.}}</ref> Bhillamala,<ref>{{cite book|title=Rajasthan District Gazetteers: Jalor|quote=Hiuen Tsang, who visited Bhillamala in about 641 A.D. refers to it as the capital of the Gurjara kingdom . According to him the king of this place was a Kshatriya, a profound believer in Buddhism and a man of exceptional abilities.|year=1973|author=K.K Sehgal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gAil1gRL4sYC}}</ref> Maharashtra<ref>{{cite book|title=Maratha-Rajput Relations from 1720 to 1795 A.D.|author=K.A Acharya|publisher=University of California|page=4|quote=Hiuen – Tsang (first half of seventh century) speaks Pulakeshi (Pu–lo–ki–she) as the great kshatriya king of Maharashtra.|year=1978|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Afu1AAAAIAAJ&q=Maharashtra+kshatriya+hiuen+tsang}}</ref> and Vallabhi.<ref>{{cite book|author=Vincent A. Smith|page=325|title=The Early History of India|year=1999|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8XXGhAL1WKcC&dq=Valabhi+kshatriya+hiuen+tsang&pg=PA325|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist|isbn=9788171566181 |quote=Sīlāditya, the former Raja of Valabhi and Mo-la-p'o, was considered to be a Kshatriya}}</ref> | |||
| :''Dasaratha ruled his people with a father's loving grace.'' | |||
| == |
=== Emergence of "Puranic" Kshatriyas === | ||
| In the era from 300 to 700 CE, new royal dynasties were bestowed kshatriya status by Brahmins by linking them to the kshatriyas of the epics and Puranas. Dynasties began affiliating themselves with the ] and ] and this gave them legitimation as rulers. In return the newly christened kshatriyas would patronize and reward the Brahmins. The Sanskritic culture of the kshatriyas of this period was heavily influential for later periods and set the style that kshatriyas of later periods appealed to. This process took place both in North India and the Deccan.{{Sfn|Thapar|2004|p=320, 324, 341, 370}} | |||
| === Modern era === | |||
| In the initiation rituals, the Nyagrodha (Ficus Indica or India Fig/] tree) danda, or staff, is assigned to the Kshatriya class. | |||
| Writing in the context of how the ] operated in the 1960s, Pauline Kolenda noted that the "caste function of the Kshatriya is to lead and protect the village, and with conquest to manage their conquered lands. The Kshatriyas do perform these functions today to the extent possible, by distributing food as payments to ''kamins'' and providing leadership."<ref name="kolenda">{{cite journal |title=Toward a Model of the Hindu Jajmani System |first=Pauline Mahar |last=Kolenda |journal=Human Organization |volume=22 |issue=1 |date=Spring 1963 |pages=11–31 |doi=10.17730/humo.22.1.x01162046g995q1j |jstor=44124164}}</ref> | |||
| :''The Nyagrodha or Banyan tree, (not to be confused with the Peepul, Ficus Religiosus or Sacred Fig), with its hanging branch like roots which turn into trunks and can grow to cover acres, was regarded as resembling the Kshatriya. The Nyagrodha is the kshatra power of trees, and the Kshatriya is the kshatra power , for the Kshatriya dwells fastened to the kingdom, and is supported . The Nyagrodha is fastened to the ground by its downward growths, and supported ''<ref>Aitereya Brahmana, 7.31; see also Satapatha Brahmana 5.3.5.13</ref>. | |||
| ==Symbols== | |||
| "The staff made of this wood is given to the ] initiate with a mantra imparting physical vitality or 'ojas'".<ref>Reflections on Resemblance, Ritual, and Religion; Brian K. Smith</ref> | |||
| In rituals, the ''nyagrodha'' ('']'' or India fig or ] tree) ''danda'', or staff, is assigned to the kshatriya class, along with a mantra, intended to impart physical vitality or 'ojas'.<ref>Brian K. Smith. , Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1998</ref> | |||
| In the Manu Smriti, or Laws of Manu, the ] caste is given the Varna (Color) red. | |||
| == |
==Lineage== | ||
| The Vedas do not mention kshatriya (or varna) of any ''vamsha'' (lineage). The lineages of the ]-] tradition<ref name="indianhistory"/> are: the ] (Suryavamsha);<ref name="indianhistory"/> and the ] (Chandravamsha/Somavamsha).<ref name="indianhistory"/> | |||
| The universe in Hindu mythology came into being through the yawn of the Adi-Purusha, the one eternal being. He then felt it necessary to monitor the universe. So, he created Lord Vishnu and Lord Shiva, entrusting them with preservance and re-creation. These two were the two sides of the same coins, a replica of HIM. The primary job now was that of procreation. Lord Vishnu created Brahma from his navel, an incarnation of none other than Lord Shiva. | |||
| Brahma, the procreator, then set about his task of creating the universe. He created the celestial bodies, earth, mountains, water, air and ether - known in Hinduism as Panch Maha Bhuta. He then created the Sapta Rishis, (Seven wise sages who would take the task of infusing life on the earth). An eighth rishi Narad was born, who declared that he was not interested in procreation and renounced his life for the propagation of Knowledge and Bhakti (Worship). The seven sages started with what their Father had ordered them. They came to be known as Prajapatis (Propagators of the divine human race). Rishi Kashyap grew to be wiser than the rest and Brahma married him off to Daksh Prajapati's two daughters - Diti and Aditi. Diti turned out to be a scheming and jealous woman always trying to belittle and outdo virtuous Aditi. This quality in her gave rise to a human race with the same inherent qualities and they came to be known as Daityas. Virtuous Aditi gave birth to equally virtuous and illustrious sons and they came to be known as Adaityas. Surya (Sun) and Indra (Fire) were born of Aditi. Hence the Sun God is also known as Aditya. | |||
| <ref>Excerpted from Katha Kalpataru, an ancient treatise from the Vedas</ref> | |||
| There are other lineages, such as ] ("fire lineage"), in which an eponymous ancestor is claimed from ] (fire),<ref name="indianhistory">Indian History: Ancient and medieval, p. 22. Volume 1 of Indian History, Encyclopædia Britannica (India) Pvt. Ltd, 2003.</ref> and Nagavanshi (snake-born), claiming descent from the ]s, whose description can be found in scriptures such as ].<ref>Omacanda Hāṇḍā. Naga Cults and Traditions in the Western Himalaya, p. 251. </ref> | |||
| When Brahma was involved in the job of procreation due to toil and perspiration, a negative energy emanated from him. This negative energy took form of Rakshasas (Devils) Madhu and Kaitabha, evil and inhuman souls. They started torturing Brahma. Brahma appealed to Lord Vishnu who readily appeared and killed both of them. He explained to Brahma that when a positive energy is utilized, negative energy also emanates, and that a special race of humans should be created to protect the entire human race. Brahma acting on this advice sat down for meditation. At the end of the day four different forms of energy for the human race were formed out of Brahma's body. Brahmins were created at dawn, Kshatriyas at Noon, Vaishyas at dusk and Shudras at night. Note that these were the Varnas (colors) and not 'caste' (Jati) as now thought of today. Usually this is told as Brahmins were born from Brahma’s head, ending with Shudras from the feet. In the Rig Veda the varnas were not rigid and were related to ones actions. | |||
| {{clear}} | |||
| The Brahmin varna was reddish as the sky before dawn, Kshatriya varna as the Sun at noon, Vaishya as the evening sky and Shudra the color of night sky. Gradually, the Varna system caught hold of Indian Sub Continent and each varna did its job as per guidelines of Brahma. Brahmins and Kshatriyas were the upper castes and Vaishyas and Shudras the lower castes. Both, Brahmins and Kshatriyas were allowed to study the Vedas. Kshatriyas (pronounced as shatria) also studied the ancient martial arts which were eventually carried by Buddhist monks like ] (a Kshatriya) to China and Japan. The Brahmans and Kshatriyas and later the Vaishyas had to perform a communion ceremony called the Upanayanam (thread ceremony) that would symbolize their entry into the Aryan social structure and would be considered reborn, i.e dvijas (twice born). This meant that you accepted the Vedas as the word of God and were willing to perform the rituals and duties outlined under the guidance of your spiritual guide, the Brahman priest. | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| The Rig Veda refers to the ways in which Gods four body parts make up the four classes, depending on the nature or values that the human holds. The Brahmans hold spiritual and intellectual values and are in charge of teaching the Vedic Sanskrit, thus are made up of his head. The Kshatryas are the warriors that protect the countries and thus are made up of his arms. The Vaishyas are the farmers and merchants in the production nature and thus are made up of his belly and the Shudras are the laborers who perform menial chores of farming, labor, artisans and all the jobs required of a society and thus are made up of his legs. This was interpreted as meaning that no one caste is more important than the other and that society cannot survive without all parts working together. | |||
| *] | |||
| *]s | |||
| *] | |||
| ==References== | |||
| According to ], ] is considered the law-giver and progenitor of humanity. He had over 50 sons. Manu was both king and priest and his children (and thus all of humanity) are considered highborn. Due to the eventual differences in occupations, people ended up in different ] and ]. Those who studied the ] became known as Brahmins, those who practiced trade became ], those who labored became ], and those who took up ] became Kshatriyas. The word ] means "noble" and was initially only used for kings and Kshatriyas as it is related to the word "Aristocracy". | |||
| === Citations === | |||
| {{Reflist}} | |||
| === |
=== Bibliography === | ||
| * {{cite book|last=Thapar|first=Romila|author-link=Romila Thapar|title=History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-5irrXX0apQC&q=History+of+Early+India:+From+the+Origins+to+AD+1300 |publisher=University of California Press|year=2004|isbn=0520242254}} | |||
| There is confusion between Varna, Jati and Caste. While the term varna refers to the four broad different classes in society, the term jati refers to the different specific endogamous sections of the Hindu Society which is known as castes. Varna means "color" as well as "veil". It shows the four different ways in which the Divine Self is hidden in human beings. In the context of color people have confused it to mean race but it actually represents the distinct qualities (guna) that the four functional classes possess in their hearts and minds. The four different qualities of human beings: | |||
| ==Further reading== | |||
| #If a person possessed the qualities of purity, love, faith and detachment, seek true knowledge and have a spiritual temperament, they would be represented by the color White (sattva = truthful). Those that belong to this color, belong to the Brahman class. | |||
| *Ramesh Chandra Majumdar, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. ''History and Culture of Indian People, The Vedic Age''. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1996. pp. 313–314 | |||
| #If a person possessed the qualities of action, will, aggression, and energy, seek honor, power, status and have a martial and political temperament, they would be represented by the color Red (rajas = energetic). Those that belong to this color belong to the Kshatriya class. | |||
| #If a person tried to seek communication, interchange, trade, business and possessed a commercial temperament they were represented by the color Yellow. They make up the Vaishya class. | |||
| #For those individual in society who showed ignorance, inertia, and dullness, they were represented by the color Black (tamas = inert, solid). Those belonging to this color are thought to be dependent on the rest of the world for motivation and seek nothing as they exist in those of the servile disposition and make up the Shudra class. | |||
| {{Commons category}} | |||
| One hymn of the ] states: | |||
| {{Wikiquote}} | |||
| :कारुरहं ततो भिषगुपलप्रक्षिणी नना । (RV 9.112.3) | |||
| :"I am a bard, my father is a physician, my mother's job is to grind the corn......" | |||
| Clearly this color scheme had nothing to do with race and everything to do with a person’s aptitude. | |||
| *], meaning five people, is the common name given to the five most ancient Vedic kshatriya tribes. It is supposed they are all descendants of the Turvasu. They are ], ], ], ] and ]. For example, ] is descended from the ]; ] is descended from Sini, ] is descended from the ]; etc. | |||
| ===Theories of origin=== | |||
| The caste system was very fluid early on and an individual rose or fell depending on his own merit. Historians generally agree that caste became hereditary around the time of the rise of Buddhism and Jainism based on archaeological, literary, and artistic evidence of the communities that existed in India. ] and ] are two Kshatriya sages who made a lasting impression on the world. They did not believe in the preeminence of the Vedas and taught to the masses, not keeping spirituality to an elite few. Many of the ancient rulers such as Ashoka Maurya were ardent followers of this faith and promoted it throughout the Mauryan empire. This resulted in the decline in status of the Brahman order. Priests in all three faiths were the record keeper and as you will see in the coming examples there was a definite trend towards placing rulers in the Sudra varna if they did not follow Vedic teachings and maintain the prominence of the priestly order, losing their Kshatriya status. | |||
| Two camps exist about the importance of these texts. One camp is similar to the literalists of the ] faith who believe that their holy texts are verbatim documentation of real people, events and dates and that modern society is descended from them. The other camp believes that the holy texts are not meant to be taken literally and should be used symbolically as examples of the proper way to live. | |||
| Those who believe the '']'', '']'' and '']'' were verbatim documents feel that modern Kshatriyas are descended from the Vedic Kshatriyas. The reason for the controversy is that we do not have any physical evidence of their existence. There are no bones, forts, weapons, coins, monuments, pictures etc. discovered to state unequivocally that they existed. | |||
| The literalists believe that most of the Kshatriya communities descend from Surya, Chandra, or ]. The Surya descendants claim descent from the ] (Suryavansh). ] also belonged to this dynasty, and the ] ]s trace their linage back to him. Maharaja Agrasen also belonged from the same descent. The Chandra descendants claim descent from the ] (Chandravansh). ] also was born in this dynasty. Yaduvanshi Kshtriyas consider him as an ancestor. This is based on the writings of the Rig Veda and other Puranas. Great epics, the ], the ] and the ], also support it. | |||
| ====Jain origin==== | |||
| ], the last Tirthankara, was born into the Kshatriya caste.]] | |||
| According to Jainism, ], the first ] founded three varnas namely Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras. Later, Bharat, eldest son of Rishabh, and the first ] founded the Brahmin varna in the absence of Rishabh. “They will promote inequality in people.” | |||
| Thus four varnas came into existence: namely, the Kshatriyas, Brahmins, Vaishyas and Shudras. According to Jain and Buddhist literature, Kshatriyas are nothing but those who own a farm, i.e. farmers. And Kshatriyas are descendants of Rishabh, the first Jain Tirthankar. This fact is clearly stated in many Hindu puranic texts like the Bhagwat Purana, Brahma Purana, Vishnu Purana, ''etc.'' | |||
| The clan of Rishabh was called Ikshwaku and is thus the clan of all Kshatiyas. Later two branches of this clan came into existence. The first was Suryavanshi which was named after Adityayash (Ark kirti), the elder son of Bharat and the Grand Son of Rishabh and second Somvansh named after Somyash, the elder son of Bahubali. (Bahubali was younger brother of Bharat and son of Rishabh). Rajputs and Marathas believe that Suryavansh was divided, later, into 36 clans and Somvansh was divided into 60 clans. Thus the total number of Kshatriya clans became 96. | |||
| ====Establishments and assimilation==== | |||
| In ancient times there was mobility between varnas, as people learned new skills and changed their actions and occupations. The nomadic tribes of ancient India did not have a fixed caste system. They initially assigned roles based on an individual’s aptitude and ability. This was necessary in order to ensure the tribe's survival. The stronger members of the tribe became the ]s and were given higher status in society, as they were more important to the survival of the tribe at the time. As the tribes became more familiar with farming they built up surpluses and settled. This more sedentary and leisurely lifestyle shifted the people's focus to accumulating wealth and finding a meaning to life. Priests began to take the preeminent role in society as they ensured spiritual salvation. This led to society forming a more rigid social system, where one's position was determined by birth rather than merit. Thereafter, those in the more powerful classes enforced this caste system to remain in power, a pattern also exhibited by the ] of Europe. During the ] people began to question these institutions. | |||
| Many historical rulers came from other castes, or were descended from non-Hindu foreign conquerors, and were either granted ''de facto'' Kshatriya status by virtue of the power they held, or they created fictionalized family histories to connect themselves to past Kshatriya rulers. For instance, the ], ], ], ], ], ''etc.,'' were foreign invaders from the northwest, but were assimilated into the Indian community as Kshatriyas. | |||
| ====Non-orthodox Kshatriyas==== | |||
| ] or ] was born into a Hindu Kshatriya family]] | |||
| * Though the ] of ] (sutra 4.1.168-175) attests that the ] and ] were very important Kshatriya kingdoms of ] during or prior to Paninian times (500 BC), they came to be regarded as Sudras for not following the teachings of the Vedas. See more on ancient ]. | |||
| * The ], written about 200 AD states that the ]s (]s), ]s (Ionian, ]), ]s (]ns), ] (]), ] (]), ]s (], ]), Dravidas,] (]), and ] were originally noble Kshatriyas but were relegated to the Barbaric (''Vrishala'') status due to their neglect of the ]s as well as due to their non-observance of the sacred Brahmanical codes (X/43-44). | |||
| * Anushasanaparava of the ] also views the Sakas, Kambojas and the Yavanas etc. in the same light. ] in his Mahabhasya regards the Sakas and Yavanas as pure ]s (II.4.10). | |||
| * The Vartika of the ] informs us that the kings of the Sakas and the Yavanas, like those of the Kambojas, may also be addressed by their respective tribal names. | |||
| * The ] also associates the ], ], ]s (Northwest India), ] (Pamir-Badakshan), ], ], Sabaras, Barbaras, ]s, ] etc.. and addresses them all as the ] ]s of ]. | |||
| * In another verse the ] groups the Shakas, Kambojas and ] together and state them as the tribes from Udichya, i.e. north division (5/169/20). | |||
| * The Kishkindha Kanda of the ] locates the Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas and the Paradas in the extreme north-west beyond the Himavat (i.e. Hindukush) (43/12) in the ], adjoining the land of ]. | |||
| * The Udyogaparava of the ] (5/19/21-23) tells us that the composite army of the ], ] and ] had participated in the Mahabharata war under the supreme command of ]. The epic repeatedly applauds this composite army as being very fierce and wrathful. Some verses of Mahabharata also attest that the ] or ] were also included in the Kamboja division (e.g.: MBH 6.66.17-21; MBH 8.88.17). '''''' ] | |||
| * ] accounts attest that the ]s are Kshatriyas and are said to be descendants of the sons of ]. Like the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas, Daradas, Khashas etc, the Dravidas were recorded as Kshatriyas who no longer were initiated into the sacred thread due to their neglect of the ]s as well as due to their non-observance of the sacred ] codes.<ref>{{cite book| title = A Many Branched Tree: Perspectives of Indian Literary Tradition | author = K.M. George | year = 1991}}</ref> | |||
| ==Kshatriya lineage== | |||
| The major branches of Kshatriya varna are ], claiming descent from ], ], claiming direct descent from ] and descent from ], ], claiming descent from ], and the ], claiming descent from the ]s. | |||
| ===Suryavanshi === | |||
| {{main|Suryavanshi}} | |||
| The ''Suryavanshi'' or Solar dynasty lineage claims descent from ]. Suryavanshis also claim descent from Rama, who was himself born into a Suryavanshi dynasty. | |||
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| === Chandravanshi === | |||
| {{main|Chandravanshi}} | |||
| The ''Chandravanshi'' or Lunar dynasty lineage claims descent from ]. | |||
| The ''Yaduvanshi'' lineage are the major sub-branch of the Chandravanshi lineage. The Yaduvanshis claim descent from ], who in turn was born into a Chandravanshi dynasty. Several ] such as ]s, ]s of Bhati Clan, Jadaun Rajputs (Madhya Pradesh), and the Jats of ] and ], claim descent from the Yaduvanshi lineage. | |||
| *] | |||
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| === Agnivanshi === | |||
| {{main|Agnivanshi}} | |||
| The ''Agnivanshi'' lineage claims descent from ]. | |||
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| === Nagavanshi === | |||
| {{main|Nagavanshi}} | |||
| Some castes claim Kshatriya status as descendents of the ] or the "serpent dynasty", and are called ''Nagavanshi''. Particular clans of ] and ] caste claim Nagavanshi descent. The Nagavanshi (or Nagabanshi) are known for ruling ]. | |||
| *] gotras such as: | |||
| **] | |||
| **] | |||
| **] | |||
| **] etc. claim descent from Nagavanshi lineage.<ref>]: History of the Jats, Rohtak, India (1938, 1967)</ref> | |||
| **]<ref>{{cite book | title = The Modern Review | author = Ramananda Chatterjee | publisher = Prabasi Press Private, Ltd | date = 1907 | page = 695}}</ref> subcastes such as: | |||
| ***]<ref name = "Gundert">Dr. Hermann Gundert, Keralolpathiyum Mattum, (Band 4, Hermann Gundert Series, Eight works published during 1843-1904) (Kottayam: Current Books, 1992), p 185</ref> | |||
| ===Others=== | |||
| *] kings of ] claimed descent from Indra (identified with Khunlung) and Syama (a low-caste woman), and called themselves Indravanshi (or Indravamsa) Kshatriyas. | |||
| *The Brahmavansha lineage descends from the Brahmavanshi king Chulki. | |||
| *The Vayuvanshi are another Kshatriya clan although not much is known about the clan. | |||
| *The Rexulvanshis are popular for being the kings of Surguja. | |||
| *The alien hordes that didn't follow priestly customs or traditions (], ]s, ], ] and ]s) were stated as Vratya Kshatriyas in Manusmriti<ref>Magumdar, Raichaudhry. Notes of ]], Allahabad University, ], JNU, Jamia Milia Islamia (Irfan Habib)</ref>. | |||
| *]<ref>CASTES AND TRIBES OF SOUTHERN INDIA, p14, 1909</ref> | |||
| ===Outside the Indian subcontinent=== | |||
| * About 40 percent of the total population of ] is comprised of ] Kshatriyas. ] has a ] system and is heavily influenced by the ]. | |||
| * The ''Balamon'' ] ] of ] consist of 70% Kshatriyas (pronounced in Vietnamese as "''Satrias''"). Although ''Balamon'' make up only 25% of the over all Cham population (the other 75% are ] or ''Cham Bani''). These ''Balamon'' Kshatriyas claim to be the descendants of the ] Empire. | |||
| ==References== | |||
| {{reflist}} | |||
| == Further reading == | |||
| *History and Culture of Indian People, The Vedic Age, p 313-314 | |||
| * ]: This great Gujarati author researched both the ancient and modern eras and wrote books which can be considered as encyclopedic novels. He wrote books on both the Chandravansh and Suryavash. Further details are found at his official web site. Although he wrote all his work in his mother tongue (Gujarati) the site provides some comprehensive information in English. Article about the author also found on Misplaced Pages ] | |||
| ==See also== | |||
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Latest revision as of 18:44, 19 November 2024
Ruling and warrior class of the Hindu varna system For the Bollywood film of the same name, see Kshatriya (film).
Kshatriya (Sanskrit: क्षत्रिय, romanized: Kṣatriya) (from Sanskrit kṣatra, "rule, authority"; also called Rajanya) is one of the four varnas (social orders) of Hindu society and is associated with the warrior aristocracy. The Sanskrit term kṣatriyaḥ is used in the context of later Vedic society wherein members were organised into four classes: brahmin, kshatriya, vaishya, and shudra.
History
Early Rigvedic tribal monarchy
The administrative machinery in the Vedic India was headed by a tribal king called a Rajan whose position may or may not have been hereditary. The king may have been elected in a tribal assembly (called Samiti), which included women. The Rajan protected the tribe and cattle; was assisted by a priest; and did not maintain a standing army, though in the later period the rulership appears to have risen as a social class. The concept of the fourfold varna system is not yet recorded.
Later Vedic period
The hymn Purusha Sukta to the Rigveda describes the symbolic creation of the four varna-s through cosmic sacrifice (yajña). Some scholars consider the Purusha Sukta to be a late interpolation into the Rigveda based on the neological character of the composition, as compared to the more archaic style of the Vedic literature. Since not all Indians were fully regulated under the varna in the Vedic society, the Purusha Sukta was supposedly composed in order to secure Vedic sanction for the heredity caste scheme. An alternate explanation is that the word 'Shudra' does not occur anywhere else in the Rig-veda except the Purusha Sukta, leading some scholars to believe the Purusha Sukta was a composition of the later Rig-vedic period itself to denote, legitimize and sanctify an oppressive and exploitative class structure that had already come into existence.
Although the Purusha Sukta uses the term rajanya, not Kshatriya, it is considered the first instance in the extant Vedic texts where four social classes are mentioned for the first time together. Usage of the term Rajanya possibly indicates the 'kinsmen of the Rajan' (i.e., kinsmen of the ruler) had emerged as a distinct social group then, such that by the end of the Vedic period, the term rajanya was replaced by Kshatriya; where rajanya stresses kinship with the Rajan and Kshatriya denotes power over a specific domain. The term rajanya unlike the word Kshatriya essentially denoted the status within a lineage. Whereas Kshatra, means "ruling; one of the ruling order". Jaiswal points out the term Brahman rarely occurs in the Rig-veda with the exception of the Purusha Sukta and may not have been used for the priestly class. Based on the authority of Pāṇini, Patanjali, Kātyāyana and the Mahabharata, Jayaswal believes that Rajanya was the name of political people and that the Rajanyas were, therefore, a democracy (with an elected ruler). Some examples were the Andhaka and Vrsni Rajanyas who followed the system of elected rulers. Ram Sharan Sharma details how the central chief was elected by various clan chiefs or lineage chiefs with increasing polarisation between the rajanya (aristocracy helping the ruler) and the vis (peasants) leading to a distinction between the chiefs as a separate class (raja, rajanya, kshatra, kshatriya) on one hand and vis (clan peasantry) on the other hand.
The term kshatriya comes from kshatra and implies temporal authority and power which was based less on being a successful leader in battle and more on the tangible power of laying claim to sovereignty over a territory, and symbolising ownership over clan lands. This later gave rise to the idea of kingship.
In the period of the Brahmanas (800 BCE to 700 BCE) there was ambiguity in the position of the varna. In the Panchavimsha Brahmana (13,4,7), the Rajanya are placed first, followed by Brahmana then Vaishya. In Shatapatha Brahmana 13.8.3.11, the Rajanya are placed second. In Shatapatha Brahmana 1.1.4.12 the order is—Brahmana, Vaishya, Rajanya, Shudra. The order of the Brahmanical tradition—Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra—became fixed from the time of dharmasutras (450 BCE to 100 BCE). The kshatriya were often considered pre-eminent in Buddhist circles. Even among Hindu societies they were sometimes at rivalry with the Brahmins, but they generally acknowledged the superiority of the priestly class. The Kshatriyas also began to question the yajnas of the historical Vedic religion, which led to religious ideas developed in the Upanishads.
Hindu Ritual Duties
The Kshatriyas studied Vedas, gave gifts and performed fire sacrifice.
| Adhyayan (Study Vedas) |
Yajana (performing sacrifice for one's own benefit) |
Dana (Giving Gifts) |
Adhyapana (Teaching Vedas) |
Yaajana (Acting as Priest for sacrifice) |
Pratigraha (accepting gifts) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Brahmin | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
| Kshatriya | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | No | No | No |
| Vaishya | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | No | No | No |
Mahajanapadas
The gaṇa sangha form of government was an oligarchic republic during the period of the Mahajanapadas (c. 600–300 BCE), that was ruled by Kshatriya clans. However, these kshatriyas did not follow the Vedic religion, and were sometimes called degenerate Kshatriyas or Shudras by Brahmanical sources. The kshatriyas served as representatives in the assembly at the capital, debated various issues put before the assembly. Due to the lack of patronage of Vedic Brahmanism, the kshatriyas of the gana sanghas were often patrons of Buddhism and Jainism. In the Pali canon, Kshatriya is referred as khattiya.
In the kingdoms of the Mahajanapadas, the king claimed kshatriya status through the Vedic religion. While kings claimed to be kshatriya, some kings came from non-kshatriya origins.
After the Mahajanapada period, most of the prominent royal dynasties in northern India were not kshatriyas. The Nanda Empire, whose rulers were stated to be shudras, destroyed many kshatriya lineages.
Post-Mauryan Kshatriyas
After the collapse of the Maurya Empire, numerous clan-based polities in Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan claimed kshatriya status.
The Shakas and Yavanas were considered to be low-status kshatriyas by Brahmin authors.
In the third to fourth centuries CE, kingdoms in the Krishna and Godavari rivers claimed kshatriya status and performed Vedic rituals to legitimate themselves as rulers. During his visit to India in the 7th century, Hieun Tsang noted that kshatriya rulers were ruling the kingdoms like Kabul, Kosala, Bhillamala, Maharashtra and Vallabhi.
Emergence of "Puranic" Kshatriyas
In the era from 300 to 700 CE, new royal dynasties were bestowed kshatriya status by Brahmins by linking them to the kshatriyas of the epics and Puranas. Dynasties began affiliating themselves with the Solar and Lunar dynasties and this gave them legitimation as rulers. In return the newly christened kshatriyas would patronize and reward the Brahmins. The Sanskritic culture of the kshatriyas of this period was heavily influential for later periods and set the style that kshatriyas of later periods appealed to. This process took place both in North India and the Deccan.
Modern era
Writing in the context of how the jajmani system operated in the 1960s, Pauline Kolenda noted that the "caste function of the Kshatriya is to lead and protect the village, and with conquest to manage their conquered lands. The Kshatriyas do perform these functions today to the extent possible, by distributing food as payments to kamins and providing leadership."
Symbols
In rituals, the nyagrodha (Ficus indica or India fig or banyan tree) danda, or staff, is assigned to the kshatriya class, along with a mantra, intended to impart physical vitality or 'ojas'.
Lineage
The Vedas do not mention kshatriya (or varna) of any vamsha (lineage). The lineages of the Itihasa-Purana tradition are: the Solar dynasty (Suryavamsha); and the Lunar dynasty (Chandravamsha/Somavamsha).
There are other lineages, such as Agnivanshi ("fire lineage"), in which an eponymous ancestor is claimed from Agni (fire), and Nagavanshi (snake-born), claiming descent from the Nāgas, whose description can be found in scriptures such as Mahabharata.
See also
References
Citations
-
- Upinder Singh (2017). Political Violence in Ancient India. Harvard University Press. p. 23. ISBN 9780674975279.
- John McLeod (2002). The History of India. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 207. ISBN 9780313314599.
- Thapar 2004, p. 63.
- Bujor Avari (2007). India: The Ancient Past: A History of the Indian Sub-Continent from c. 7000 BC to AD 1200, p. 89
- ^ Renou, Louis (1957). Vedic India. p. 130.
- Shori, Maj Gen A. K. "Fifth Shade : Rama as A King". Seven Shades of Rama. Notion Press. ISBN 978-93-84391-74-4.
- Sharma, Ram Sharan (2005). India's ancient past. the University of Michigan: Oxford University Press. pp. 110–112. ISBN 9780195667141.
- ^ Jamison, Stephanie W.; Brereton, Joel P. (2014). The Rigveda: The Earliest Religious Poetry of India. Oxford University Press. pp. 57–58. ISBN 978-0-19-937018-4.
- David Kean (2007). Caste-based Discrimination in International Human Rights Law, p. 26. Ashgate Publishing Ltd.
- Jayantanuja Bandyopadhyaya (2007). Class and Religion in Ancient India, pp. 37–47. Anthem Press.
- ^ Kumkum Roy (2011). Insights and Interventions: Essays in Honour of Uma Chakravarti, p. 148. Primus Books.
- Turner, Sir Ralph Lilley; Dorothy Rivers Turner (January 2006) . A Comparative Dictionary of the Indo-Aryan Languages (Accompanied by three supplementary volumes: indexes, compiled by Dorothy Rivers Turner: 1969. – Phonetic analysis: 1971. – Addenda et corrigenda: 1985. ed.). London: Oxford University Press. pp. 189–190. Retrieved 23 October 2011.
- Radhakrishna Choudhary (1964). The Vrātyas in Ancient India, Volume 38 of Chowkhamba Sanskrit studies, p. 125. Sanskrit Series Office.
- Ram Sharan Sharma (1991). Aspects of Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India, p. 172. Motilal Banarsidass Publications.
- Reddy (2005). General Studies History 4 Upsc. Tata McGraw-Hill Education. pp. 78, 79, 33, 80, 27, 123. ISBN 9780070604476.
- Upinder Singh (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century, p. 202. Pearson Education India.
- ^ Jeanne Auboyer (1965). Daily Life in Ancient India. Phoenix Press. pp. 26–27. ISBN 1-84212-591-5.
- Thapar 2004, p. 129, 131.
- ^ Ludo Rocher (2014). "9.Caste and occupation in classical India: The normative texts". In Donald R. Davis Jr. (ed.). Studies in Hindu Law and Dharmaśāstra. Anthem Press. pp. 205–206. ISBN 9781783083152.
- Thapar 2004, pp. 146–150.
- Thapar 2004, p. 170.
- Gautama Buddha: The Life and Teachings of The Awakened One. Hachette UK. 2011. ISBN 978-1849169233.
- Thapar 2004, pp. 150–151.
- Thapar 2004, pp. 155–156.
- Thapar 2004, p. 211.
- Thapar 2004, p. 227.
- Thapar 2004, pp. 228–229.
- Devi Dayal Aggarwal (2017). India Ever Independent. Balboa Press. ISBN 978-1504391702.
- Mishra, Patit Paban (2005). Cultural rapprochement between India and Southeast Asia. National Book Organisation. pp. 5–6. ISBN 8187521171.
Hsuan Tsang mentions the existence of kshatriya rulers by stating that the ruler of Kosala was a kshatriya and follower of Buddhism.
- K.K Sehgal (1973). Rajasthan District Gazetteers: Jalor.
Hiuen Tsang, who visited Bhillamala in about 641 A.D. refers to it as the capital of the Gurjara kingdom . According to him the king of this place was a Kshatriya, a profound believer in Buddhism and a man of exceptional abilities.
- K.A Acharya (1978). Maratha-Rajput Relations from 1720 to 1795 A.D. University of California. p. 4.
Hiuen – Tsang (first half of seventh century) speaks Pulakeshi (Pu–lo–ki–she) as the great kshatriya king of Maharashtra.
- Vincent A. Smith (1999). The Early History of India. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. p. 325. ISBN 9788171566181.
Sīlāditya, the former Raja of Valabhi and Mo-la-p'o, was considered to be a Kshatriya
- Thapar 2004, p. 320, 324, 341, 370.
- Kolenda, Pauline Mahar (Spring 1963). "Toward a Model of the Hindu Jajmani System". Human Organization. 22 (1): 11–31. doi:10.17730/humo.22.1.x01162046g995q1j. JSTOR 44124164.
- Brian K. Smith. Reflections on Resemblance, Ritual, and Religion, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1998
- ^ Indian History: Ancient and medieval, p. 22. Volume 1 of Indian History, Encyclopædia Britannica (India) Pvt. Ltd, 2003.
- Omacanda Hāṇḍā. Naga Cults and Traditions in the Western Himalaya, p. 251.
Bibliography
- Thapar, Romila (2004). History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300. University of California Press. ISBN 0520242254.
Further reading
- Ramesh Chandra Majumdar, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. History and Culture of Indian People, The Vedic Age. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1996. pp. 313–314
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