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Iyengar or Ayyangar (Template:IPA-te) is a caste given to Hindu Brahmins of Tamil origin who follow the Visishtadvaita philosophy propounded by Sri Ramanujacharya. They are found mostly in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu but there are also in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.

Iyengar are divided into two different sub-sects and, as with other Brahmin communities, they are also classified based on their gotra, or patrilineal descent.

The original language of the Iyengar Brahmins is Tamil, but they also speak other languages, notably Telugu and Kannada. The Iyengar community trace their origin in Tamil Nadu from the period of Ramanuja.

Iyengars sport a namam (Thiruman+Srichurnam) as a caste-mark as opposed to Iyers who apply vibhuti, generally on their forehead.

Etymology

There are various opinions regarding the etymology of Iyengar.

• It is derived from Ayya, a Prakrit version of the Sanskrit word Arya, along with the Telugu honorific plural suffix garu.
• It means one who is characterised by five attributes (Aindu angangal).

Robert Lester says that the word “Ayyangaar”, an alternate transliteration, was first used by Kandhaadai Ramanuja Ayyangaar of Tirupathi around 1450 AD.

Ethnicity, genetics and origin

Iyengars are divided into two sects, being the Vadakalai and the Thenkalai. These sects may be of distinctly different in origin, but it is possible that they emerged in the 14th century AD following a split in the community.

Vadakalai Iyengar

The Vadakalai Iyengars are believed to be an Indo-Aryan people who once migrated from North India. In a genetic study in Andhra Pradesh all individuals examined among Vadakalai Iyengars showed a high similarity of rhesus(d) gene frequency with the people of Faislabad in the Punjab province of Pakistan. All the individuals examined among Vadakalai Iyengars showed Rhesus(D) positive with a high frequency of the D allele while the other castes from Andhra showed a low frequency of the D allele. Vedanta Desika, the Vaishnavite Acharya and philosopher, founded the Vadakalai sampradaya based on the Sanskritic tradition.

Thenkalai Iyengar

The Thenkalai Iyengar sect which was led by Manavala Mamuni, follow the Tamil Prabhandams and reject the caste system. The Thenkalai sect was founded by Pillailokacharya, while Manavala Mamuni is considered the sect's most important and famous leader. The Thenkalai society has also accepted a significant proportion of the non-Brahmin population into its fold. The Thenkalai sect seems to be liberal in its outlook, and so shapes the doctrine of the system as to make them applicable to non-Brahmin castes.

History

The Iyengar community started taking shape about 1000 years ago, and traces its philosophical origins to Nathamuni, a Sri Vaishnava Acharya, who lived around 900 CE. Nathamuni, who was exposed to the divine outpourings of Nammazhwar and other Azhwars (Sri Vaishnava Saints from Southern India) introduced the philosophy of Azhwars into temple worship. Nathamuni's efforts were formalised into a religious system of lifestyle, practice and worship by Ramanuja who propounded the philosophy of Visishtadvaita. Ramanuja claimed that the mystic insights of the Azhwars were the same truths enshrined in the Vedas, and created a group of people whose identity as servants of Narayana focussed on the fact that all sentient beings were 'equal' being children of the same Supreme Being, and that outward bodily differences in terms of varna and caste were unimportant in terms of one's relationship to the Supreme. Ramanuja had Srivaishnava (Iyengar) disciples spanning the social spectrum, including non-Brahmin saints such as Pillai Uranga Villi Dasar and Tripura-devi, a lady disciple known for her unwavering devotion to Ramanuja.

Demographics

Iyengars, along with Iyers, are present in large numbers in the Chola Nadu region of Tamil Nadu, regarded as the traditional home of Tamil Brahmins. Besides Chola nadu, Iyengars are also present in large numbers in Chennai, Srirangam and Kanchipuram, as well as in South Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.

The Iyengar tradition originated with Ramanuja in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Following persecution from the Cholas, Ramanuja migrated to modern day Karnataka where he received royal patronage from the Hoysalas. Today, Iyengars are distributed all over Tamil Nadu with a majority of them, however, residing along the Cauvery Delta, as well as in the states of Karnataka (Melkote, Mysore and Bengaluru) and Andhra Pradesh.

Language and dialect

The mother tongue of most Iyengars in Tamil Nadu is Tamil. However, they speak a unique Iyengar dialect often called Vaishnava Paribhaashai. This dialect is almost identical with the Iyer dialect known as Brahmin Tamil, the difference being only in the level of Sanskritization. Scholars have often refused to recognise it as a separate dialect regarding it only as a sub-dialect of Brahmin Tamil.

However, Iyengars in Karnataka speak a dialect that has a significant Kannada substrate, which has descended from medieval Tamil. Iyengars in southern Andhra Pradesh speak both Tamil and Telugu.

For a detailed mapping of words and spoken forms of the Iyengar dialects and standard Tamil, see Iyengar Tamil.

Subsects

By philosophy

Iyengars are classified into Vadakalai, or "Northerners", and Thenkalai, or "Southerners".

The Vadakalais, who trace their philosophical origins to Vedanta Desika, follow the Sanskrit Vedas, and believe that human effort is a contributory factor to liberation, as is Divine grace. The Thenkalais, who trace their origins to Pillai Lokacharya as well as Manavala Mamunigal, assert primacy to Tamil and the prabhandams, and maintain that liberation comes primarily through grace.

Edgar Thurston summarises the points of dissension between Vadagalai and Thengalai Iyengars thus:

1. Whether Lakshmi, the consort of Vishnu, is (Vibhu) co-omnipresent and co-illimitable with Vishnu;
2. Whether Lakshmi is only the mediatrix for, or the co-bestower of moksham or final beatitude;
3. Whether there is any graduated moksham attainable by the good and blessed, according to their multifarious merits;
4. Whether prapatti, or unconditional surrender of the soul to God, should be performed once for all, or after every act of spiritual rebellion;
5. Whether it (prapatti) is open to all, or is prescribed only for those specially prepared and apprenticed;
6. Whether the indivisibly atomic human soul is entered into, and permeated or not by the omnipresent creator;
7. Whether God's mercy is exerted with or without cause;
8. Whether the same (the divine mercy) means the overlooking (dhosha darsanam) or enjoyment (dhosha bogyatvam) of the soul's delinquencies;
9. Whether works (karma) and knowledge (Jnana) are in themselves salvation giving, or only lead to faith (bhakthi) by which final emancipation is attained;
10. Whether the good of other (unregenerate) castes should be tolerated according to their graduated social statuses, or should be venerated without reference to caste inequalities;

The principal difference between both sects lie in their belief relating to the theory of surrender to God. Vadakalai Iyengars believe that it is necessary to offer obeisance/prostration to God multiple times, while Thenkalai Iyengars believe that it is enough if you offer obesaiance/prostration to God once. This is the reason as to why a Vadakalai Iyengar is often seen prostrating four times, while Thenkalai Iyengars are seen prostrating only once. This aspect of difference in prostration reflects the subtle variation of faith. These are called markata kishora and marjara kishora in Sanskrit, referring to litter of monkey and cat. The Vadagalai sect rely on the fact that young one of a monkey always hugs its mother, otherwise the mother would not carry it. This explains the fact that one must always cling on to God to seek his blessings. On the contrary, the Thengalai sect rely on the fact that young one of a cat never hugs its mother, as the mother always would carry it. According to them, this explains the fact that it is enough if one cling on to God once to seek his blessings as the duty to protect you becomes his burden.

Even amongst the Vadakalai and Thenkalai sects, there are further sub-traditions based on minor differences in system of prayer.

By origin

Iyengars, both Vadakalai and Thenkalai, are sub-divided into Hebbar, Mandyam, Iyengar proper (those who live in Tamil Nadu) and Chozhiyar. The Iyengar proper, who form the majority are referred to as Keezhnaatu (from southern lands) in Karnataka.

Hebbar

The Hebbars speak a unique dialect of Tamil called Hebbar Tamil. In earlier years confined to the towns of Belur, Shanti Grama, Nuggehalli, Nonavinakere, Bindiganavile in the Tumkur district, and Hiremagalur (all in Karnataka), Hebbar Iyengars are now found in many parts of India, across Europe, and North America. It is believed that Hebbars are the descendants of Srivaishnavas who migrated to Karnataka from Tamil Nadu, in the train of the Vaishnavite acharya Ramanuja.

Mandyam

Mandyam Iyengars are those who migrated to Mandya district in Karnataka from Tirupathi in Andhra Pradesh. They are fewer in number than Hebbars and speak a unique dialect of Tamil known as Mandyam Tamil. Mandyam Iyengars, without exception, belong to the Thenkalai subsect.

The Iyengars of Melkote (Khoday Iyengars) are known for their proficency in Sanskrit literature. The head of the Khoday Iyengars clan was Sri Shelvapellai Iyengar and now under the charge of Khoday Narayana Iyegnar. In South-Indian languages, Khoday means "Umbrella". This epithet got tagged as their ancestors had the honour of holding an umbrella over Lord Yoga Narashimha, idol on the occasion of Melakote Vairamudi, in the pressence of the then Maharaja of Mysore. Most of the Mandyam sect, do not celebrate Deepawali due to the lore that Tippu Sultan massacred hundreds of relatives of the Tirumaliyengar, in retaliation for his having entered into an agreement with the British in 1790, on behalf of the dowager queen Rani Lakshammanni of Mysore.

Chozhiar Iyengars

The word Chozhiar means “of the Chola”. Chozhiar is the name given to a sect of Brahmins native to the Chola region. While most Chozhiars profess Saivism, some profess Vaishnavism and are known as Chozhiar Iyengars. . They usually bear titles as ‘Dikshitar’’’ or ‘Nambi’’’. The Chozhiar Iyengars are a closely knit community with a high degree of cooperation and cohesion. They are also found in and around Trichi in several agraharams like Srirangam, Puthur, Amoor etc.

Others

Other sub sects include Keezh Naattu Iyengars,Mysore Iyengars,Kalkunte Iyengars and Hemmige in Karnataka.

Keezh Naadu refers to the more recent connection to southern lands. Keezh Naatu literally means southern land. This class comprises Brahmin migrants from Tamil Nadu who live in the South Western states such as Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. The principle native cities or cities of importance to these Iyengars are Tirupati in Andhra Pradesh as well as Mysooru(Mysore), Mandya, Tumkur, Shimoga and Hassan districts of Karnataka.

Tamil Iyengars

This class describes the Iyengars that inhabit Tamil Nadu, whose descendants have a widespread diaspora throughout the South of India in states such as Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, as mentioned before. The principal native cities where they live in recent times are Sri Rangam, Kanchipuram/North Arcot(Tonda nadu) district, Thanjavur, Kumbakonam, Madurai, Srivilliputtur,Ramanadapuram(near Tiruppalani), and Tirunelveli (near Nava Tirupathi divya desams) in Tamil Nadu.

In Karnataka they are mostly spread across the erstwhile Maharaja of Mysore's kingdom -Bangalore, Hassan, Mysore, Nuggehalli, Coorg.

In Andhra Pradesh, they are present in the areas around Tirupathi and Ahobilam (near Nandyal).

Philosophy

Many Iyengars accept Narayana / Vishnu as the Supreme Being (Paramatma), and subscribe to a monotheistic philosophy of a Supreme Being who is the primal, substantive and supportive cause of the manifest and unmanifest universe. But it will appear strange for a Southerner to know that Vishishtadvaitam as practised in South India is an unheard term among the Vaishnav Sects in the North India. They also recognise all other gods such as Brahma, Indra, Shiva and Agni in the Hindu pantheon as subservient to Narayana and amongst the jeevatmas (sentient souls, chit) whose existence is dependent upon the will of the Supreme Being.

Religious observances

In addition to the observance of Śrauta and Smartha karmas prescribed in Kalpa-sūtras, Iyengars also observe rites such as Samasrayanam that derive their authority from the Pañcaratra Āgama.

Saṃskāras

Iyengars observe most of the important Samskaras ordained in the Grhya Sutras. These include Seemantham, Jatakarman, Namakarana, Annaprashana, Upanayana , Vivaha, and Antyeshti. The details of these rituals vary according to the vedic shakha and Grhya-Sutra one follows. Among Iyengars, most Yajurvedins follow Âpastamba-Grhyasûtra while Samavedins follow either Drâhyâyana-Grhyasûtra or Jaiminiya-Grhyasûtra. Consequently, the above rituals bear great similarity with other Brahmins who follow the same vedic shakha.

In addition to the samskaras mentioned above, Iyengars also undergo a unique ceremony called Pancha-Samskara (Samashrayanam) that initiates a person into the Sri-Vaishnava sampradaya. The pancha (five) samskaras include Thapam (branding of the Sankha and Chakra on the arms), Pundram (wearing of the marks of Lord Vishnu on the forehead and body), Namam (adopting a new name that signifies ones servitude to Lord Vishnu and his devotees), Manthram (getting initiated into the Rahasya-Traya mantras) and Ijyai (performing daily Aradhanam to Lord Vishnu).

Daily Rituals

According to Nithya Grantham of Sri Ramanuja, Vaishnavas have to perform the karmas enjoined in the , smrithis and puranas. Swami Vedanta Desika has further explained about the daily duties of a Sri-Vaishnava in his work Sri Vaishnava Dinasari. According to this work, a day consists of five parts: Abhigamanam (seeking the Lord's blessings immediately after waking up), Upadanam (preparation to perform Bhagavat Aradhanam), Ijyai(performing Aradhanam in accordance with the Pancaratra Agama), Svadhyayam (practicing vedic scriptures) and Yogam (meditating on the Lord's feet).

Based on the mandate of the Vedas, Smrithis, Puranas and their interpretation by the Sri-Vaishnava Acharyas, the following are the daily duties expected to be performed by a Iyengar :  :

• Waking up at Brahma-Muhurta and meditating upon the feet of the Lord
• Snana (bathing) while chanting Varuna Suktam and Aghamarshana Suktam
• Pratah Sandhyavandanam
• Aupasana and Agnihotra
• Abhigamana Aradhanam
• Madhyayahnika Sandhyavandanam
• Brahma-Yagnam
• Ijjya Aradhana
• Vaishvadevam
• Bhojanam
• Reading Itihasas and Puranas
• Saayam Sandhyavandanam
• Aupasana and Agnihotra
• Vedaadhyayanam
• Bhojanam
• Go to sleep while reflecting upon the lord's glory

It must be noted that Srauta rites such as daily performance of Agnihotra, bi-monthly performance of Darshapurnamasa, tri-annual performance of Chaturmasya have almost entirely been discontinued by Iyengars in recent times. However, Srautins such as Agnihotram Ramanuja Tatachariar have helped continue the Srauta tradition among Iyengars.

Weddings

A typical Iyengar wedding are made up of the following events: Vethalaipakku, Pandalkal, Janwaasam, Nischayathartham, Nandi or Vratham, Kashiyathrai, Oonjal, Piddishuttal, Kanyadaanam, Mangalaya Dharanam, Akshathai, Homam, Saptapadi, Nagoli, Vasthra, Gruhapravesham, Sambandhi Virandhu,Reception and Nalangu.

Important festivals

Iyengars, as Srivaishnavas, observe festivals such as Pongal(referred to as Makara Sankranti by Vadakalais), Rama Navami, Krishna Janmashtami, Dussehra or Navaratri, Deepavali and Vaikunta Ekadashi. It is common among orthodox Iyengars to observe fasts during certain months of the Tamizh calendar, as also yearly pujas during the month of Margazhi.

Lifestyle and culture

The first and foremost point of references for Iyengars with regard to their legal system is the Manusmriti. The Manusmriti prescribes a set of ethical vales to be practised. Iyengars follow the set of values prescribed by the Manusmriti. Among adult males, it is common to observe nithyakarma – the daily ablutions, obesiances to the Sun, Sandhyavandanam and pranayama (a form of Yoga). Adult females observe days of rest during their menstrual cycle and do not cook or observe rituals during these days. Adult females do not perform the same rituals as adult males although they generally take part in the same rituals and nithyakarmas. The nithyakarmas form the basic structure of the Brahmanical lifestyle for Iyengars.

The traditional dress of Iyengars is the same as that of other South Indian Brahmins. During religious ceremonies, Iyengar men clothe themselves in a panchagacham(a cotton or silk clothing with five folds) and an angavastram. Just like Iyers, Iyengar women wear a nine-yard long saree known as the madisar but the style of wearing the saree is different from that of the Iyers.

Iyengars sport the Sricharanam as opposed to Iyers who apply vibhuti. The significance of the Sricharanam is that it represents the Goddess Lakshmi, the divine consort of Lord Vishnu and is considered an important representative of one's faith in the Divine. It is typical for devout Iyengars to wear the Sricharanam (along with, in many cases, the Thirumann) at all times, except when they perform the morning duties and subsequently the ablutions prescribed as part of the Nitya karma or daily activities. Iyengar women usually wear a tilakam and a sindooram at traditional ceremonies. A married Iyengar woman, called a Sumangali', is expected to wear a mangalyam – referred to in Tamizh thali which indicates her marital status.

Politics

Post-independence, Iyengars, along with Iyers, have been marginalised by the anti-Brahmin Movement in Tamil Nadu. Prior to independence, Iyengars along with Iyers, held a monopoly over education and had a firm control over the administrative machinery in Madras province. The first Congress Chief Minister of Madras province, the first Indian Governor-General of India and a leading luminary of the freedom movement, Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari, were all Iyengars. However, ironically, it was partially to Rajaji's policies, that Tamil Brahmins, owe their downfall. A couple of legislations brought into effect by the Rajaji Government that ruled from 1937 to 1940 and 1950 to 1952 decreed that the children in a family should learn and master the trade of their parents and that Hindi should be made compulsory for government jobs. These legislations, more than anything else, were responsible for vitiating the communal atmosphere in the province resulting in the rapid growth of the Dravidian Movement. Rajaji was elected for a second term in 1952 but with Rajaji's resignation as Chief Minister two years later and his replacement by Kamaraj, the downfall began. Iyers and Iyengars were gradually effaced out of the political scene by the rise of Dravidianism and the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam which captured power in 1967. Today, Iyengars, along with Iyers, have almost disappeared from the political arena with the exception of a few individuals. Brahmin individuals still continue to wield considerable authority as the example of Jayalalithaa Jayaram, AIADMK which is a Dravidian party, the current Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu would indicate.

Iyengars and Iyers

Iyengars have much in common with Iyers with respect to their observance of Vedic rituals, lifestyle, traditions, heritage, history and culture. They follow the same vedic shakhas prevalent in the region including Taittiriya school of Krishna Yajurveda, Kauthuma school of Samaveda and Jaiminiya school of Samaveda. The rituals associated with nitya-karmas (such Sandhyavandanam, Pancha Mahayajna and Aupasana) and Samskaras (such as Simantonnayana, Upanayana, Vivaha and Antyeshti are nearly identical.

However significant differences arise mainly with respect to their adherence to the Vishishtadvaita philosophy, monastic affiliation, marriage traditions and to a small extent vocabulary. Iyengars worship Narayana exclusively while Iyers worship all gods as a manifestation of the Brahman.

Iyengars today

Iyengars have been active in the arts. Music has always been integral to the Iyengar community; Carnatic music has a great tradition within the community with many contemporary performers originating from the Iyengar community. Apart from vocal music, instruments such as mridangam, naadaswaram, veena, ghatam, violin, and more recently, the mandolin etc., Bharatanatyam were also patronised. Carnatic music and Bharathanatyam together enjoy a rich patronage in the cultural festivities in and around Chennai during the months of December and January (Margazhi or Mrgasheersha). For a list of Iyengars who have achieved prominence in their vocations, see List of Iyengars.

Criticism

See Also: Criticism of Iyers, Brahminism, Anti-Brahminism, Caste-Based Reservations in Tamil Nadu

It was found that prior to Independence, the Pallars were never allowed to enter the residential areas of the caste Hindus particularly of the Brahmins. Whenever a Brahmin came out of his house, no Scheduled Caste person was expected to come in his vicinity as it would pollute his sanctity and if it happened by mistake, he would go back home cursing the latter. He would come out once again only after taking a bath and making sure that no such thing would be repeated. However, as a mark of protest a few Pallars of this village deliberately used to appear before the Brahmin again and again. By doing so the Pallars forced the Brahmin to get back home once again to take a bath drawing water from deep well.

Grievances and alleged instances of discrimination by Brahmins are believed to be the main factors which fuelled the Dravidian Movement. This, in combination with the depressed economic and social conditions of non-Brahmins, led the non-Brahmins to agitate and form the Justice Party in 1916, which later became the Dravidar Kazhagam. The Justice Party banked on vehement anti-Hindu and anti-Brahmin propaganda to ease Brahmins out of their privileged positions. Gradually, the non-Brahmin replaced the Brahmin in every sphere and destroyed the monopoly over education and the administrative services which the Brahmin had previously held.

However, with the destruction of Brahmin monopoly over the services and introduction of adequate representation for other communities, anti-Brahmin feelings did not subside. There were frequent allegations of casteism and racism against Brahmins very similar to the ones made by the lower castes against them in the decades before independence.

Some Iyengars have worked to remove caste-barriers. Sir P. Rajagopalachari, during his tenure as the Dewan of Travancore, introduced legislation to give Dalit and Ezhava children access to schools, despite protests from Malayali upper-castes. He also enabled the lifting of restrictions on the nomination of low-castes and untouchables to the Travancore State Assembly. Chakravarti Rajagopalachari, during his tenure as the Chief Minister of Madras Presidency, enacted a law similar to the Temple Entry Proclamation issued in Travancore that permitted the entry of Dalits into Hindu temples.

There were also accusations that they were Sanskritists who had a distorted and contemptuous attitude towards Tamil language, culture and civilisation

However, a detailed study of the history of Tamil literature proves this accusation wrong. The renowned Dravidologist Kamil Zvelebil notes that the Brahmin was chosen as a scapegoat to answer for the decline of Tamil civilisation and culture in the medieval and post-medieval periods.

Notable people

See also

• Iyer
• Forward Castes
• Vishishtadvaita
• Divya Desam

Notes

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41. {{title=Ahnika Granthaha|publisher=Ahobila Mutt
42. "Homage to a centenarian". http://newstodaynet.com. {{cite web}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); External link in |publisher= (help); Missing or empty |url= (help); Unknown parameter |http://newstodaynet.com/printer.php?id= ignored (help)
43. Ritual ceremonies and customs, Tamil Iyengar wedding
44. Gariyali, C. K. (11 March 2002). "Iyengar Marriage Part 1". Chennai Online. Retrieved 4 September 2008.
45. Gariyali, C. K. (16 April 2002). "Iyengar Marriage Rituals - Part Four". Chennai Online. Retrieved 4 September 2008.
48. "''Superiority in Numbers'' from ''Tehelka.com'', April 22, 2006". Tehelka.com. 22 April 2006. Retrieved 15 November 2011.
49. Caste and the Tamil Nation by Nambi Arroran, from tamilnation.org
50. "A brief biography of Rajaji". Ceeby.com. Retrieved 15 November 2011.
51. A. Ramiah. "Untouchability in villages". Untouchability and Inter Caste Relations in Rural India: The Case of Southern Tamil villages. tamilnation.org. Retrieved 19 August 2008.
52. Caste in Indian Politics by Rajni Kothari, Pg 254
53. Warrier, Shobha (30 May 2006). "'Education is the means of social mobility'". Rediff News. Archived from the original on 4 May 2008. Retrieved 19 August 2008.
54. Ayyankali, Chapter 4:Kerala's First Workers Strike
55. Ayyankali, Chapter 8:Praja Sabha Member-2e
56. P.V.Manickam Naicker, writes in 'The Tamil Alphabet and its Mystic Aspect', 1917,Pg 74–75: "Even should Dutt's description of the aryanisation be true, the real Aryan corpus in South-India came to nothing. A cranial study of the various classes will also confirm the same. The lecturer, being a non-Brahmin, wishes to leave nothing to be misunderstood. His best and tried friends are mostly Brahmins and he is a sincere admirer of them. There is no denying the fact that the ancestors of the present Brahmins were the most cultured among the South-Indians at the time the said Aryanisation took place and got crystallized into a class revered by the people. As the cultured sons of the common mother Tamil, is it not their legitimate duty to own their kinsmen and to cooperate and uplift their less lucky brethren, if they have real patriotism for the welfare of the state? On the contrary, the general disposition of many a Brahmin is to disown his kinship with the rest of the Tamil brethern, to disown his very mother Tamil and to comstruct an imaginary untainted Aryan pedigree as if the Aryan alone is heaven-born
57. Zvelebil, Pg 197
58. Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature,Pg 216
59. Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature,Pg 212
60. Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature,Pg 213

References

• Ghurye, G. S. (1991). Caste and Race in India. Bombay: Popular Prakashan. ISBN 0-8364-1837-9.
• Thurston, Edgar (1909). Castes and Tribes of Southern India Volume I – A and B. Madras: Government Press. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• W. Clothey, Fred (2006). Ritualizing on the Boundaries: Continuity and Innovation in the Tamil Diaspora. University of South Carolina. ISBN 1-57003-647-0, ISBN 978-1-57003-647-7. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
• Zvelebil, Kamil (1973). The Smile of Murugan on Tamil Literature of South India. BRILL. ISBN 90-04-03591-5.
• V. Zvelebil, Kamil (1992). Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature. BRILL. ISBN 90-04-09365-6. {{cite book}}: More than one of |author= and |last= specified (help)
• Aiyangar, S. Krishnaswami (1919). Some Contributions of South India to Indian Culture. University of Calcutta. ISBN 81-206-0999-9.
• E. V. Ramasami (27 March 1929). "Is this Nationalism?" (PDF). The Revolt.
• W. B. Vasantha Kandasamy, F. Smarandache, K. Kandasamy, Florentin Smarandache (1 December 2005). E. V. Ramasami's Writings and Speeches. American Research Press. ISBN 978-1-931233-00-2. Retrieved 13 August 2008. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
• Ghosh, G. K. (2003). Brahmin Women. Firma KLM. ISBN 81-7102-107-7. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |isbn-status= ignored (help)
• Slater, Gilbert (1924). The Dravidian Element in Indian Culture. Ernest Benn.
• Iyengar, P.T. Srinivasa (1929). History of the Tamils from the Earliest Times to 600AD. Asian Educational Services.

Further reading

• K. Rangachari (1931). The Sri Vaishnava Brahmins.

• Use dmy dates from November 2011
• Articles with multiple maintenance issues from May 2012
• Indian castes
• Indian family names
• Social groups of India
• Tamil Brahmins
• Hindu communities
• Social groups of Tamil Nadu
• Hindu surnames
• Brahmin communities