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{{Original research|date=October 2012}}
#REDIRECT ]
{{History of Romania}}
The term '''Daco-Roman''' describes the ] culture of ] and parts{{which|date=October 2012}} of ]{{cn|date=October 2012}} under the rule of the ]. It is closely related{{how|date=October 2012}} to the term ], which tends{{clarifyme|date=October 2012}} to describe the Romanized cultures in the ] south of the ].{{cn|date=October 2012}}

The Romanian ] and historiographer ] stated that the Daco-Roman formula, as an origin for the ], began to surface around 1870s.{{sfn|Boia|2001b|p=92}} Philologist ] publishes in 1870 in ] the first volume of his reference work ''The Daco-Roman Etymological Dictionary: Latin elements compared with the other Romance languages'' (original French title: {{lang|fr|''Dictionnaire d'étymologie daco-romane: éléments latins comparés avec les autres langues romanes''}}).{{sfn|Cihac|1870}}

== Historical background ==
=== Before the Romans ===
{{Main|Dacia|Dacians}}
{{See also|Moesia|Getae}}
] of the ancient ] capital, ]]]
In ancient geography, especially in ] sources, ] was the land inhabited by the ] and the ], both peoples being considered by some of the scholars as branches of the ], north of the ] (the ]). Furthermore, some of the scholars consider the Dacians and the Getae as being the same people, based on ancient sources and linguistics research, while others see them as related.

Dacia was bounded in the south approximately by the ] river (]), in Greek sources the ''Istros'', or at its greatest extent, by the Haemus Mons. The ] were located in the middle of Dacia, thus corresponds to the present day countries of ] and ], as well as smaller parts of ], ], ], and ].

] was an ancient region situated in the ], south of Dacia, along the south bank of the Danube, where the ] and Getae lived. In the east it was bounded by the ] (]) and the river ''Danastris'' (]), in Greek sources the ''Tyras''. It included territories of modern-day ] (Moesia Superior), Northern ]<ref>the regions around ] and ]</ref>, ], ], Southern ], and ] (Lower Moesia).<ref>{{cite web|title=Map of Moesia Superior and Inferior|url=http://www.severusalexander.com/images/moesia.gif|publisher=severusalexander.com}}</ref>

The ] reached its maximum expansion during King ], between 82 BCE - 44 BCE. Under his leadership Dacia became a powerful state which threatened the regional interests of the Romans. ] intended to start a campaign against the Dacians, due to the support that Burebista gave to ], but was assassinated in ]. A few months later, Burebista shared the same fate, assassinated by his own noblemen. Another theory suggests that he was killed by Caesar's friends. His powerful state was divided in four and did not become unified again until 95 AD, under the reign of the Dacian king ].

=== Arrival of the Romans ===
{{Main|Roman Dacia|Dacian Wars}}
{{off-topic|date=October 2012}}
The ] conquered ] by 29 BC, reaching the Danube. In 87 AD Emperor ] sent six legions into Dacia, which were ]. The Dacians were eventually defeated by Emperor ] in ] stretching from 101&nbsp;AD to 106&nbsp;AD,<ref>{{Citation|title =Assorted Imperial Battle Descriptions|publisher =De Imperatoribus Romanis, An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors|url =http://www.roman-emperors.org/assobd.htm#s-inx|accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref> and the core of their kingdom was turned into the province of ].

The occupied native population began to become more and more involved into the political life of the Empire. The tradition of ]s of Thracian origin dates back as early as the 3rd century. The first one was ], kinsman of the ] king ]. By the 3rd century, the Thracians became an important part of the ]. The army used Latin as its operating language. This continued to be the case well after the 6th century, despite the fact that Greek was the common language of the Eastern empire.<ref>] '']''</ref>{{or|date=October 2012}} This was not simply due to tradition, but also to the fact that about half the Eastern army continued to be recruited in the Latin-speaking Danubian regions of the Eastern empire. An analysis of known origins of ''comitatenses'' in the period 350-476 shows that in the Eastern army, the Danubian regions provided 54% of the total sample, despite constituting just 2 of the 7 eastern ]: ] and ].{{sfn|Elton|1996|p=134}} These regions continued to be the prime recruiting grounds for the East Roman army, e.g. the emperor ] (r. 518-27), father of Justinian I, a Latin-speaking Thracian<ref name=autogenerated2>Ion I. Russu, Elementele traco-getice în Imperiul Roman și în Byzantium (veacurile III-VII), Editura Academiei R. S. România, 1976, pag.95</ref><ref>Velizar Iv Velkov, Cities in Thrace and Dacia in Late Antiquity: (studies and Materials), University of Michigan, 1977, pag.47</ref><ref>Robert Browning, Justinian and Theodora, Gorgias Press LLC, 2003, ISBN 1-59333-053-7, pag.23</ref><ref>Scott Fitzgerald Johnson, Greek Literature in Late Antiquity, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd, 2006, ISBN 0-7546-5683-7, pag.166</ref><ref>John Julius Norwich, A Short History of Byzantium, Vintage Books, 1997, ISBN 0-679-77269-3, pag.59</ref> peasant from Bederiana (an unlocalized village in an area to this day inhabited by the ]), who bore, like his companions and members of his family (Zimarchus, Dityvistus, Boraides, Bigleniza, Sabatius, etc.) a Thracian name,<ref name=autogenerated2 /><ref>James Allan Stewart Evans, The Age of Justinian: The Circumstances of Imperial Power, Routledge, 1996, ISBN 0-415-23726-2, pag. 96</ref> and who never learned to speak more than rudimentary Greek.

]'', a late Roman register of military commands, depicting shields of the ''magister militum praesentalis II''.]]
If, for the first centuries after the Roman conquest of ], the antagonism between the occupied and free ] and the Romans was clearly visible, as demonstrated by the episode when Emperor ] claimed that the name of the Empire should be changed into the ''"Dacian Empire".''<ref>Lactanius, "Of the manner in which the persecutors died": ''"Whatever, by the laws of war, conquerors had done to the conquered, the like did this man presume to perpetrate against Romans and the subjects of Rome, because his forefathers had been made liable to a like tax imposed by the victorious Trajan, as a penalty on the Dacians for their frequent rebellions."'' ''"Long ago, indeed, and at the very time of his obtaining sovereign power, he had avowed himself the enemy of the Roman name; and he proposed that the empire should be called, not the Roman, but the Dacian empire."''</ref>{{or|date=October 2012}}

] (270-275)]]
The pressing need to deal with the ] meant Aurelian needed to settle the situation along the Danube frontier.{{sfn|Southern|2001|pp=225-226}} Reluctantly, and possibly only as a temporary measure, he decided to abandon the province.{{sfn|Southern|2001|pp=225-226}} The traditional date for Dacia's official abandonment is 271;{{sfn|MacKendrick|2000|p=117}} another view is that Aurelian evacuated his troops and civilian administration during 272-273,{{sfn|Southern|2001|pp=120-121}} possibly as late as 275.{{sfn|Watson|2004|p=156}} {{Quote|''The province of Dacia, which Trajan had formed beyond the Danube, he gave up, despairing, after all ] and Moesia had been depopulated, of being able to retain it. The Roman citizens, removed from the town and lands of Dacia, he settled in the interior of Moesia, calling that Dacia which now divides the two Moesiae, and which is on the right hand of the Danube as it runs to the sea, whereas Dacia was previously on the left.''|Eutropius: ''Abridgement of Roman History''{{sfn|Eutropius|364 AD|loc=IX, 15}}{{sfn|Watson|1853|p=521}}}}

The end result was that Aurelian established a new province of Dacia{{sfn|Southern|2001|pp=120-121}} called ] with its capital at ], previously belonging to Lower Moesia.{{sfn|Wilkes|2005|p=239}}{{sfn|Watson|2004|p=157}} A portion of the Romanized population settled in the new province south of the Danube.{{sfn|Watson|2004|pp=156-157}}

=== Post-Roman period ===
Archaeological evidence obtained from burial sites and settlements supports the contention that a portion of the native population continued to inhabit what was Roman Dacia.{{sfn|MacKendrick|2000|p=163}} Pottery remains dated to the years after 271 AD in Potaissa,{{sfn|MacKendrick|2000|p=126}} and Roman coinage of ] and ] (son of ]) uncovered in Napoca demonstrate the continued survival of these towns.{{sfn|MacKendrick|2000|p=128}} In Porolissum, Roman coinage began to circulate again under ] (364-375); meanwhile, local Daco-Romans continued to inhabit ], fortifying the amphitheatre against barbarian raids.{{sfn|MacKendrick|2000|p=115}}

== Language ==
{{Main|Eastern Romance substratum|Daco-Romanian}}

The Roman occupation led to a Roman-Thracian ], and similar to the case of other conquered civilisation (see ] developed in ]), had as final result the Latinization of many Thracian tribes which were on the edge of the sphere of Latin influence, eventually resulting in the possible extinction of the ] language (unless, of course, ] is its descendant), although traces of it are still preserved in the ]. Starting from the 2nd century AD, the Latin spoken in the Danubian provinces starts to display its own distinctive features, separate from the rest of the ], including those of western Balkans (]).<ref>Al. Rosetti: "Istoria limbii române" ("History of the Romanian Language"), Bucharest, 1986</ref> The Thraco-Roman period of the ] is usually delimited between the 2nd (or earlier, via cultural influence and economic ties) and the 6th or 7th century.<ref>''Dicţionarul limbii române (DLR), serie nouă'' ("Dictionary of the Romanian Language, new series"), ], responsible editors: Iorgu Iordan, Alexandru Graur, Ion Coteanu, Bucharest, 1983;</ref> It is divided, in turn, into two periods, with the division falling roughly in the 3rd-4th century. The ] considers the 5th century as the latest date when the differences between Balkan Latin and western Latin could have appeared,<ref>“Istoria limbii române” ("History of the Romanian Language"), II, Academia Română, Bucharest, 1969;</ref> and that between the 5th and 8th centuries, this new language – Romanian - switched from Latin speech, to a ] vernacular idiom, called ''']'''.<ref>I. Fischer, "Latina dunăreană" ("Danubian Latin"), Bucharest, 1985.</ref><ref>A. B. Černjak "Vizantijskie svidetel'stva o romanskom (romanizirovannom) naselenii Balkan V–VII vv; “Vizantinskij vremmenik", LIII, Moscova, 1992</ref>

== Archaeological sites ==
* ] (Valea Perilor/Cătunele and Botoşeşti-Paia sites)
* ]

== Famous individuals ==
This is a list of several important Daco-Roman individuals:
* ], ] and ] (lived c. 220-268 AD); per ] he was a herdsman<ref>Zonaras, Op. Cit. xii, 24.</ref> born in the ], north of the ]
* ], often called "]", Dacian<ref>Jordanes, Getica, 176; Merobaudes, Carmina, iv, 42-43, and Panegyrici, ii, 110-115, 119-120; Gregory of Tours, ii.8; Zosimus, v.36.1; Chronica gallica 452, 100. Cited in Jones, p. 21.</ref>{{OR|date = October 2012}} and Roman origin
* ], Roman Emperor who affirmed his Dacian roots to such an extent that "he had avowed himself the enemy of the Roman name; and he proposed that the empire should be called, not the Roman, but the Dacian empire"<ref>], ''De mortibus persecutorum'', IX, 1; XXVII, 9; FHDR: II, 4, 6.</ref>{{OR|date = October 2012}}
* ], born as Leo Marcellus in the year 401 to a Daco-Roman or Thraco-Roman family (of the ]<ref>According to ], F.H.G. IV, p.135</ref>{{OR|date = October 2012}}<ref>''The Rome that Did Not Fall...'' p.174</ref>{{failed verification|date = October 2012}} or ]<ref>According to ], XIV, p.369</ref> tribe){{OR|date = October 2012}}
* ] (died 260), was a ]<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=z-NCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA80&dq=Regalianus#v=onepage&q=Regalianus&f=false|title=A descriptive catalogue of rare and unedited Roman coins:from the earliest period of the Roman coinage, to the extinction of the empire under Constantinus Paleologos|author=John Yonge Akerman|page= 80}}</ref> who turned against the ] and became himself emperor for a brief period; About his origin, the '']'' says he was a ]n, a kinsman of ].<ref>''Historia Augusta'', Tyranni Triginta, 10:8</ref>
* ] (] 3rd century), was a ], the wife of the emperor ]; Some scholars believe that Ulpia Severina was from ], where the ''] ]'' was common due to the influence of Trajan.<ref name="watson">{{cite book | last =Watson | first =Alaric| authorlink = | coauthors = | title =Aurelian and the Third Century | publisher =Routledge| year =1999 | location = London| pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 0-415-07248-4}}</ref>

== See also ==
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* The ]
* ]

== Further reading ==
* {{ro icon}} Sorin Olteanu,
* {{en icon}} Stelian Brezeanu:
* {{en icon}} Kelley L. Ross

== Notes ==
{{reflist|3}}

== References ==
<div class="references-small">
* {{cite book
|ref = harv
|last = Boia
|first = Lucian
|authorlink = Lucian Boia
|title = History and Myth in Romanian Consciousness
|url = http://books.google.ch/books?id=RM6MRPWXxQYC
|year = 2001b
|publisher = Central European University Press}
|isbn = 9789639116979
}}
* {{cite book
|ref = harv
|last = Cihac
|first = Alexandru
|title = Dictionnaire d'étymologie daco-romane: éléments latins comparés avec les autres langues romanes
|url = http://books.google.ch/books?id=FosSAAAAIAAJ
|publisher = ]
|location = Frankfurt
|year = 1870
|language = French
|isbn = 9780559388125
}}
* {{cite book
|ref = harv
|last = Elton
|first = Hugh
|title = Warfare in Roman Europe, AD 350-425
|year = 1996
|publisher = ]
|isbn = 978-0-19-815241-5
}}
* {{cite book
|ref = harv
|last = MacKendrick
|first = Paul Lachlan
|authorlink = Paul MacKendrick
|title = The Dacian Stones Speak
|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=Lwt5Li_q2asC
|publisher = ]
|year = 2000
|isbn = 978-0-8078-4939-2
}}
</div>

]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]

]
]

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The term Daco-Roman describes the Romanized culture of Dacia and parts of Moesia under the rule of the Roman Empire. It is closely related to the term Thraco-Roman, which tends to describe the Romanized cultures in the Roman provinces south of the Danube.

The Romanian historian of ideas and historiographer Lucian Boia stated that the Daco-Roman formula, as an origin for the Romanian people, began to surface around 1870s. Philologist Alexandru Cihac publishes in 1870 in Frankfurt the first volume of his reference work The Daco-Roman Etymological Dictionary: Latin elements compared with the other Romance languages (original French title: Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)).

Historical background

Before the Romans

Main articles: Dacia and Dacians See also: Moesia and Getae
The sanctuaries of the ancient Dacian Kingdom capital, Sarmizegetusa Regia

In ancient geography, especially in Roman sources, Dacia was the land inhabited by the Dacians and the Getae, both peoples being considered by some of the scholars as branches of the Thracians, north of the Haemus Mons (the Balkan Mountains). Furthermore, some of the scholars consider the Dacians and the Getae as being the same people, based on ancient sources and linguistics research, while others see them as related.

Dacia was bounded in the south approximately by the Danubius river (Danube), in Greek sources the Istros, or at its greatest extent, by the Haemus Mons. The Carpathian Mountains were located in the middle of Dacia, thus corresponds to the present day countries of Romania and Moldova, as well as smaller parts of Bulgaria, Serbia, Hungary, and Ukraine.

Moesia was an ancient region situated in the Balkans, south of Dacia, along the south bank of the Danube, where the Moesi and Getae lived. In the east it was bounded by the Pontus Euxinus (Black Sea) and the river Danastris (Dniester), in Greek sources the Tyras. It included territories of modern-day Southern Serbia (Moesia Superior), Northern Republic of Macedonia, Northern Bulgaria, Romanian Dobrudja, Southern Moldova, and Budjak (Lower Moesia).

The Dacian Kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, between 82 BCE - 44 BCE. Under his leadership Dacia became a powerful state which threatened the regional interests of the Romans. Julius Caesar intended to start a campaign against the Dacians, due to the support that Burebista gave to Pompey, but was assassinated in 44 BC. A few months later, Burebista shared the same fate, assassinated by his own noblemen. Another theory suggests that he was killed by Caesar's friends. His powerful state was divided in four and did not become unified again until 95 AD, under the reign of the Dacian king Decebalus.

Arrival of the Romans

Main articles: Roman Dacia and Dacian Wars
This section may contain material not related to the topic of the article. Please help improve this section or discuss this issue on the talk page. (October 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

The Roman Empire conquered Moesia by 29 BC, reaching the Danube. In 87 AD Emperor Domitian sent six legions into Dacia, which were defeated at Tapae. The Dacians were eventually defeated by Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the province of Roman Dacia.

The occupied native population began to become more and more involved into the political life of the Empire. The tradition of Roman Emperors of Thracian origin dates back as early as the 3rd century. The first one was Regalianus, kinsman of the Dacian king Decebalus. By the 3rd century, the Thracians became an important part of the Roman army. The army used Latin as its operating language. This continued to be the case well after the 6th century, despite the fact that Greek was the common language of the Eastern empire. This was not simply due to tradition, but also to the fact that about half the Eastern army continued to be recruited in the Latin-speaking Danubian regions of the Eastern empire. An analysis of known origins of comitatenses in the period 350-476 shows that in the Eastern army, the Danubian regions provided 54% of the total sample, despite constituting just 2 of the 7 eastern dioceses: Dacia and Thracia. These regions continued to be the prime recruiting grounds for the East Roman army, e.g. the emperor Justin I (r. 518-27), father of Justinian I, a Latin-speaking Thracian peasant from Bederiana (an unlocalized village in an area to this day inhabited by the Vlachs of Serbia), who bore, like his companions and members of his family (Zimarchus, Dityvistus, Boraides, Bigleniza, Sabatius, etc.) a Thracian name, and who never learned to speak more than rudimentary Greek.

Page from the Notitia Dignitatum, a late Roman register of military commands, depicting shields of the magister militum praesentalis II.

If, for the first centuries after the Roman conquest of Dacia, the antagonism between the occupied and free Dacian tribes and the Romans was clearly visible, as demonstrated by the episode when Emperor Galerius claimed that the name of the Empire should be changed into the "Dacian Empire".

Emperor Aurelian (270-275)

The pressing need to deal with the Palmyrene Empire meant Aurelian needed to settle the situation along the Danube frontier. Reluctantly, and possibly only as a temporary measure, he decided to abandon the province. The traditional date for Dacia's official abandonment is 271; another view is that Aurelian evacuated his troops and civilian administration during 272-273, possibly as late as 275.

The province of Dacia, which Trajan had formed beyond the Danube, he gave up, despairing, after all Illyricum and Moesia had been depopulated, of being able to retain it. The Roman citizens, removed from the town and lands of Dacia, he settled in the interior of Moesia, calling that Dacia which now divides the two Moesiae, and which is on the right hand of the Danube as it runs to the sea, whereas Dacia was previously on the left.

— Eutropius: Abridgement of Roman History

The end result was that Aurelian established a new province of Dacia called Dacia Aureliana with its capital at Serdica, previously belonging to Lower Moesia. A portion of the Romanized population settled in the new province south of the Danube.

Post-Roman period

Archaeological evidence obtained from burial sites and settlements supports the contention that a portion of the native population continued to inhabit what was Roman Dacia. Pottery remains dated to the years after 271 AD in Potaissa, and Roman coinage of Marcus Claudius Tacitus and Crispus (son of Constantine I) uncovered in Napoca demonstrate the continued survival of these towns. In Porolissum, Roman coinage began to circulate again under Valentinian I (364-375); meanwhile, local Daco-Romans continued to inhabit Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa, fortifying the amphitheatre against barbarian raids.

Language

Main articles: Eastern Romance substratum and Daco-Romanian

The Roman occupation led to a Roman-Thracian syncretism, and similar to the case of other conquered civilisation (see Gallo-Roman culture developed in Roman Gaul), had as final result the Latinization of many Thracian tribes which were on the edge of the sphere of Latin influence, eventually resulting in the possible extinction of the Daco-Thracian language (unless, of course, Albanian is its descendant), although traces of it are still preserved in the Eastern Romance substratum. Starting from the 2nd century AD, the Latin spoken in the Danubian provinces starts to display its own distinctive features, separate from the rest of the Romance languages, including those of western Balkans (Dalmatian). The Thraco-Roman period of the Romanian language is usually delimited between the 2nd (or earlier, via cultural influence and economic ties) and the 6th or 7th century. It is divided, in turn, into two periods, with the division falling roughly in the 3rd-4th century. The Romanian Academy considers the 5th century as the latest date when the differences between Balkan Latin and western Latin could have appeared, and that between the 5th and 8th centuries, this new language – Romanian - switched from Latin speech, to a neolatine vernacular idiom, called Proto-Romanian.

Archaeological sites

Famous individuals

This is a list of several important Daco-Roman individuals:

See also

Further reading

Notes

  1. Boia 2001b, p. 92.
  2. Cihac 1870.
  3. the regions around Skupi and Kumanovo
  4. "Map of Moesia Superior and Inferior". severusalexander.com.
  5. Assorted Imperial Battle Descriptions, De Imperatoribus Romanis, An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors, retrieved 2008-01-10
  6. Maurice Strategikon
  7. Elton 1996, p. 134.
  8. ^ Ion I. Russu, Elementele traco-getice în Imperiul Roman și în Byzantium (veacurile III-VII), Editura Academiei R. S. România, 1976, pag.95
  9. Velizar Iv Velkov, Cities in Thrace and Dacia in Late Antiquity: (studies and Materials), University of Michigan, 1977, pag.47
  10. Robert Browning, Justinian and Theodora, Gorgias Press LLC, 2003, ISBN 1-59333-053-7, pag.23
  11. Scott Fitzgerald Johnson, Greek Literature in Late Antiquity, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd, 2006, ISBN 0-7546-5683-7, pag.166
  12. John Julius Norwich, A Short History of Byzantium, Vintage Books, 1997, ISBN 0-679-77269-3, pag.59
  13. James Allan Stewart Evans, The Age of Justinian: The Circumstances of Imperial Power, Routledge, 1996, ISBN 0-415-23726-2, pag. 96
  14. Lactanius, "Of the manner in which the persecutors died": "Whatever, by the laws of war, conquerors had done to the conquered, the like did this man presume to perpetrate against Romans and the subjects of Rome, because his forefathers had been made liable to a like tax imposed by the victorious Trajan, as a penalty on the Dacians for their frequent rebellions." "Long ago, indeed, and at the very time of his obtaining sovereign power, he had avowed himself the enemy of the Roman name; and he proposed that the empire should be called, not the Roman, but the Dacian empire."
  15. ^ Southern 2001, pp. 225–226. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSouthern2001 (help)
  16. MacKendrick 2000, p. 117.
  17. ^ Southern 2001, pp. 120–121. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSouthern2001 (help)
  18. Watson 2004, p. 156. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWatson2004 (help)
  19. Eutropius & 364 AD, IX, 15. sfn error: no target: CITEREFEutropius364_AD (help)
  20. Watson 1853, p. 521. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWatson1853 (help)
  21. Wilkes 2005, p. 239. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWilkes2005 (help)
  22. Watson 2004, p. 157. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWatson2004 (help)
  23. Watson 2004, pp. 156–157. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWatson2004 (help)
  24. MacKendrick 2000, p. 163.
  25. MacKendrick 2000, p. 126.
  26. MacKendrick 2000, p. 128.
  27. MacKendrick 2000, p. 115.
  28. Al. Rosetti: "Istoria limbii române" ("History of the Romanian Language"), Bucharest, 1986
  29. Dicţionarul limbii române (DLR), serie nouă ("Dictionary of the Romanian Language, new series"), Academia Română, responsible editors: Iorgu Iordan, Alexandru Graur, Ion Coteanu, Bucharest, 1983;
  30. “Istoria limbii române” ("History of the Romanian Language"), II, Academia Română, Bucharest, 1969;
  31. I. Fischer, "Latina dunăreană" ("Danubian Latin"), Bucharest, 1985.
  32. A. B. Černjak "Vizantijskie svidetel'stva o romanskom (romanizirovannom) naselenii Balkan V–VII vv; “Vizantinskij vremmenik", LIII, Moscova, 1992
  33. Zonaras, Op. Cit. xii, 24.
  34. Jordanes, Getica, 176; Merobaudes, Carmina, iv, 42-43, and Panegyrici, ii, 110-115, 119-120; Gregory of Tours, ii.8; Zosimus, v.36.1; Chronica gallica 452, 100. Cited in Jones, p. 21.
  35. Lactanius, De mortibus persecutorum, IX, 1; XXVII, 9; FHDR: II, 4, 6.
  36. According to Candidus, F.H.G. IV, p.135
  37. The Rome that Did Not Fall... p.174
  38. According to John Malalas, XIV, p.369
  39. John Yonge Akerman. A descriptive catalogue of rare and unedited Roman coins:from the earliest period of the Roman coinage, to the extinction of the empire under Constantinus Paleologos. p. 80.
  40. Historia Augusta, Tyranni Triginta, 10:8
  41. Watson, Alaric (1999). Aurelian and the Third Century. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-07248-4. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

References

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