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{{About|the chemical element}}
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{{Infobox sulfur}}
'''Sulfur''' (also spelled '''sulphur''' in ]) is a ]; it has ] '''S''' and ] 16. It is ], ] and ]lic. Under ], sulfur atoms form ] with the chemical formula ]. Elemental sulfur is a bright yellow, ]line solid at ].


Sulfur is the tenth most abundant element by mass in the universe and the fifth most common on Earth. Though sometimes found in pure, ] form, sulfur on Earth usually occurs as ] and ]. Being abundant in native form, sulfur was known in ancient times, being mentioned for its uses in ], ], ], and ]. Historically and in literature sulfur is also called '''brimstone''',<ref name="Greenwood-1997a" /> which means "burning stone".<ref>{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Brimstone |volume=4 |page=571}}</ref> Almost all elemental sulfur is produced as a byproduct of removing sulfur-containing contaminants from ] and ].<ref name="Knight-2014">{{cite web |last1=Laurence Knight |title=Sulphur surplus: Up to our necks in a diabolical element |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-28369829 |publisher=BBC |date=Jul 19, 2014}}</ref><ref name="BBC_Elements-2014">{{cite web |title=Sulfur |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p027xnp2|website=Elements |publisher=BBC |date=Oct 11, 2014}}. Download .</ref> The greatest commercial use of the element is the production of ] for sulfate and phosphate ]s, and other chemical processes. Sulfur is used in ]es, ]s, and ]s. Many sulfur compounds are odoriferous, and the smells of odorized natural gas, ] scent, ], ], and ] are due to ] compounds. ] gives the characteristic odor to rotting eggs and other biological processes.
The FitnessGram™ Pacer Test is a multistage aerobic capacity test that progressively gets more difficult as it continues.
The 20 meter pacer test will begin in 30 seconds. Line up at the start.
The running speed starts slowly, but gets faster each minute after you hear this signal.
A single lap should be completed each time you hear this sound.
Remember to run in a straight line, and run as long as possible.
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Sulfur is an ] for all life, almost always in the form of ] or metal sulfides. ]s (two ]: ] and ], and many other ]: ], ], etc.) and two vitamins (] and ]) are organosulfur compounds crucial for life. Many ] also contain sulfur, including ], and ]s. ]s, S–S bonds, confer mechanical strength and insolubility of the (among others) protein ], found in outer skin, hair, and feathers. Sulfur is one of the core chemical elements needed for ] functioning and is an elemental ] for all living organisms.
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==Characteristics==
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===Physical properties===
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Sulfur forms several polyatomic molecules. The best-known allotrope is ], cyclo-S<sub>8</sub>. The ] of cyclo-S<sub>8</sub> is D<sub>4d</sub> and its dipole moment is 0 D.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rettig|first1=S. J. |last2=Trotter |first2=J. |title=Refinement of the structure of orthorhombic sulfur, α-S8 |journal=Acta Crystallographica Section C|date=15 December 1987 |volume=43 |issue=12 |pages=2260–2262 |doi=10.1107/S0108270187088152 |bibcode=1987AcCrC..43.2260R |url=http://journals.iucr.org/c/issues/1987/12/00/a27614/a27614.pdf|issn = 0108-2701 }}</ref> Octasulfur is a soft, bright-yellow solid that is odorless.{{efn|But impure samples have an odor similar to that of ]es. A strong odor called "smell of sulfur" actually is given off by several sulfur compounds, such as ] and ] compounds.}} It melts at {{convert|115.21|C}},{{efn|Sulfur's melting point at 115.21°C was determined by two laboratories of the US Department of Energy (Jefferson Lab and Los Alamos National Lab).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sulfur {{!}} S (Element) - PubChem |url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/element/Sulfur |access-date=2024-04-15 |website=pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov}}</ref>
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Greenwood and Earnshaw say that at fast heating for microcrystalline α-S<sub>8</sub> the melting point is {{convert|115.1|C}}.<ref name="Greenwood-1997a" />}} and boils at {{convert|444.6|C}}.<ref name="Greenwood-1997a" /> At {{convert|95.2|C}}, below its melting temperature, cyclo-octasulfur begins slowly changing from α-octasulfur to the β-].<ref name="Greenwood-1997b">{{Greenwood&Earnshaw2nd|pages= 645–665}}</ref> The structure of the S<sub>8</sub> ring is virtually unchanged by this phase transition, which affects the intermolecular interactions. Cooling molten sulfur freezes at {{convert|119.6|C}},<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Poling |first1=Bruce E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9tGclC3ZRX0C |title=The Properties of Gases and Liquids 5E |last2=Prausnitz |first2=John M. |last3=O'Connell |first3=John P. |date=2000-11-27 |publisher=McGraw Hill Professional |isbn=978-0-07-149999-6 |language=en}}</ref> as it predominantly consists of the β-S<sub>8</sub> molecules.{{efn|Historically, it was rather difficult to find the exact melting point of sulfur.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-10-03 |title=7.5: Changes of State |url=https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Chem1_(Lower)/07%3A_Solids_and_Liquids/7.05%3A_Changes_of_State |access-date=2024-04-15 |website=Chemistry LibreTexts |language=en}}</ref> When heated slowly, the melting point may range from {{convert|114.6|C}} to {{convert|120.4|C}}<ref name="Greenwood-1997a" /> (factors that interfere with a definite melting point, are the ] of sulfur<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kozhevnikov |first1=V. F. |last2=Payne |first2=W. B. |last3=Olson |first3=J. K. |last4=McDonald |first4=C. L. |last5=Inglefield |first5=C. E. |date=2004-10-15 |title=Physical properties of sulfur near the polymerization transition |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15473808/ |journal=The Journal of Chemical Physics |volume=121 |issue=15 |pages=7379–7386 |doi=10.1063/1.1794031 |issn=0021-9606 |pmid=15473808|arxiv=physics/0405012 |bibcode=2004JChPh.121.7379K }}</ref> and a large number of allotropes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Inostroza |first1=Manuel |last2=Fernandez |first2=Bárbara |last3=Aguilera |first3=Felipe |last4=Layana |first4=Susana |last5=Walter |first5=Thomas R. |last6=Zimmer |first6=Martin |last7=Rodríguez-Díaz |first7=Augusto |last8=Oelze |first8=Marcus |date=2023 |title=Physical and chemical characteristics of active sulfur flows observed at Lastarria volcano (northern Chile) in January 2019 |journal=Frontiers in Earth Science |volume=11 |doi=10.3389/feart.2023.1197363 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2023FrEaS..1197363I |issn=2296-6463}}</ref>) Melting point may be presented as a temperature range, depending on the allotropic composition of a sample at the time of melting.}} Between its melting and boiling temperatures, octasulfur changes its allotrope again, turning from β-octasulfur to γ-sulfur, again accompanied by a lower density but increased ] due to the formation of ]s.<ref name="Greenwood-1997b" /> At higher temperatures, the viscosity decreases as depolymerization occurs. Molten sulfur assumes a dark red color above {{convert|200|C}}. The density of sulfur is about 2&nbsp;g/cm<sup>3</sup>, depending on the allotrope; all of the stable allotropes are excellent electrical insulators.
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Sulfur ] more or less between {{convert|20|C}} and {{convert|50|C}}.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tucker |first=Roy P. |date=1929-01-01 |title=Notes on the Sublimation of Sulfur between 25° and 50°C |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ie50229a014 |journal=Industrial & Engineering Chemistry |language=en |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=44–47 |doi=10.1021/ie50229a014 |issn=0019-7866}}</ref>
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Sulfur is insoluble in water but soluble in ] and, to a lesser extent, in other ] organic solvents, such as ] and ].
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===Chemical properties===
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Under normal conditions, sulfur ] very slowly to mainly form ] and ]:
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{{block indent|{{fraction|2}} {{chem|S|8}} + 4 {{chem|H|2|O}} → 3 {{chem|H|2|S}} + {{chem|H|2|SO|4|}}}}
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{{multiple image|left|perrow = 1|total_width=100|align = left
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| footer = Left: Liquid hydrogen sulfide inside a test tube. Right: A bottle of sulfuric acid.}}
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The reaction involves adsorption of protons onto {{chem|S|8}} clusters, followed by ] into the reaction products.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Maldonado-Zagal |first1=S. B. |last2=Boden |first2=P. J. |title=Hydrolysis of Elemental Sulphur in Water and its Effect on the Corrosion of Mild Steel |journal=British Corrosion Journal |date=1 January 1982 |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=116–120 |doi=10.1179/000705982798274336 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1179/000705982798274336 |access-date=23 June 2022 |issn=0007-0599}}</ref>
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The second, fourth and sixth ] of sulfur are 2252&nbsp;kJ/mol, 4556&nbsp;kJ/mol and 8495.8&nbsp;kJ/mol, respectively. The composition of reaction products of sulfur with oxidants (and its oxidation state) depends on whether releasing of reaction energy overcomes these thresholds. Applying ] and/or ] may vary sulfur's oxidation state and the composition of reaction products. While reaction between sulfur and oxygen under normal conditions gives sulfur dioxide (oxidation state +4), formation of ] (oxidation state +6) requires a temperature of {{cvt|400|–|600|°C|sigfig=2}} and presence of a catalyst.
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In reactions with elements of lesser ], it reacts as an oxidant and forms sulfides, where it has oxidation state −2.
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Sulfur reacts with nearly all other elements except noble gases, even with the notoriously unreactive metal ] (yielding ]).<ref name="Munson-1968">{{cite journal
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| url= https://htracyhall.org/ocr/HTH-Archives/Cabinet%208/Drawer%203%20(MATI%20-%20MOZ)/(Munson,%20R.A.)%20(Muntoni,%20C.)%20(Murase,%20K.)%20(linked)/(Munson,%20R.A.)%20(Muntoni,%20C.)%20(Murase,%20K.)-237_OCR.pdf
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| date= February 1968
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| title= The synthesis of iridium disulfide and nickel diarsenide having the pyrite structure
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| journal= Inorganic Chemistry
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| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190412090001/https://htracyhall.org/ocr/HTH-Archives/Cabinet%208/Drawer%203%20(MATI%20-%20MOZ)/(Munson,%20R.A.)%20(Muntoni,%20C.)%20(Murase,%20K.)%20(linked)/(Munson,%20R.A.)%20(Muntoni,%20C.)%20(Murase,%20K.)-237_OCR.pdf
| url-status= dead
}}</ref> Some of those reactions require elevated temperatures.<ref name="Wiberg-2001">{{cite book|author1=Egon Wiberg|author2=Nils Wiberg|title=Inorganic Chemistry|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mtth5g59dEIC&pg=PA513|year=2001|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-12-352651-9|pages=513–}}</ref>


===Allotropes===
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{{Main|Allotropes of sulfur}}
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Sulfur forms over 30 solid ], more than any other element.<ref>{{cite book |title= Solid Sulfur Allotropes Sulfur Allotropes |first1= Ralf |last1= Steudel|first2= Bodo|last2= Eckert|date= 2003 |volume= 230 |pages= 1–80 |doi= 10.1007/b12110 |series= Topics in Current Chemistry |isbn= 978-3-540-40191-9}}</ref> Besides S<sub>8</sub>, several other rings are known.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1007/3-540-11345-2_10 |last= Steudel|first= R. |date= 1982 |volume= 102 |pages= 149–176 |series=Topics in Current Chemistry |isbn=978-3-540-11345-4|title= Inorganic Ring Systems|chapter= Homocyclic sulfur molecules}}</ref> Removing one atom from the crown gives S<sub>7</sub>, which is of a deeper yellow than S<sub>8</sub>. ] analysis of "elemental sulfur" reveals an equilibrium mixture of mainly S<sub>8</sub>, but with S<sub>7</sub> and small amounts of S<sub>6</sub>.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Tebbe |first1= Fred N. |last2= Wasserman |first2= E. |last3= Peet |first3= William G. |last4= Vatvars |first4= Arturs |last5= Hayman |first5= Alan C. |title= Composition of Elemental Sulfur in Solution: Equilibrium of {{chem|S|6}}, S<sub>7</sub>, and S<sub>8</sub> at Ambient Temperatures |journal= Journal of the American Chemical Society|date= 1982 |volume= 104 |issue= 18 |pages= 4971–4972 |doi= 10.1021/ja00382a050}}</ref> Larger rings have been prepared, including S<sub>12</sub> and S<sub>18</sub>.<ref>{{cite journal|last1= Meyer|first1= Beat|title= Solid Allotropes of Sulfur|journal= Chemical Reviews |date= 1964|volume= 64|issue= 4|pages= 429–451|doi= 10.1021/cr60230a004}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1= Meyer|first1= Beat|title= Elemental sulfur|journal= Chemical Reviews|date= 1976|volume= 76|issue= 3|pages= 367–388 |doi= 10.1021/cr60301a003}}</ref>
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] or "plastic" sulfur is produced by rapid cooling of molten sulfur—for example, by pouring it into cold water. ] studies show that the amorphous form may have a ] structure with eight atoms per turn. The long coiled polymeric molecules make the brownish substance ], and in bulk it has the feel of crude rubber. This form is ] at room temperature and gradually reverts to the crystalline molecular allotrope, which is no longer elastic. This process happens over a matter of hours to days, but can be rapidly catalyzed.
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===Isotopes===
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{{Main|Isotopes of sulfur}}
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Sulfur has 23 known ]s, four of which are stable: <sup>32</sup>S ({{val|94.99|0.26|u=%}}), <sup>33</sup>S ({{val|0.75|0.02|u=%}}), <sup>34</sup>S ({{val|4.25|0.24|u=%}}), and <sup>36</sup>S ({{val|0.01|0.01|u=%}}).<ref>. ]</ref><ref name="CRC-2011">{{RubberBible92nd|page=1.14}}</ref> Other than <sup>35</sup>S, with a ] of 87 days, the ] isotopes of sulfur have half-lives less than 3&nbsp;hours.
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The preponderance of <sup>32</sup>S is explained by its production in the so-called alpha-process (one of the main classes of nuclear fusion reactions) in exploding stars. Other stable sulfur isotopes are produced in the bypass processes related with <sup>34</sup>Ar, and their composition depends on a type of a stellar explosion. For example, proportionally more <sup>33</sup>S comes from ] than from ].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Searching for the Origins of Presolar Grains |url=https://www.energy.gov/science/np/articles/searching-origins-presolar-grains |access-date=2023-02-04 |website=Energy.gov |language=en}}</ref>
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On the planet Earth the sulfur isotopic composition was determined by the Sun. Though it was assumed that the distribution of different sulfur isotopes would be more or less equal, it has been found that proportions of the two most abundant sulfur isotopes <sup>32</sup>S and <sup>34</sup>S varies in different samples. Assaying of the isotope ratio (]) in the samples suggests their chemical history, and with support of other methods, it allows to age-date the samples, estimate temperature of equilibrium between ore and water, determine pH and oxygen ], identify the activity of sulfate-reducing bacteria in the time of formation of the sample, or suggest the main sources of sulfur in ecosystems.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Paytan |first1=Adina |title=Geologic Time Scale |last2=Yao |first2=Weiqi |last3=Faul |first3=Kristina |last4=Gray |first4=E.T. |year=2020 |pages=259–278 |language=en |chapter=Sulfur Isotope Stratigraphy |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-824360-2.00009-7 |isbn=9780128243602 |chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/347656764}}</ref> However, there are ongoing discussions over the real reason for the δ<sup>34</sup>S shifts, biological activity or postdeposit alteration.<ref>{{Cite web |title=NASA Astrobiology |url=https://astrobiology.nasa.gov/news/the-first-sulfur-eaters/ |access-date=2023-02-04 |website=astrobiology.nasa.gov |language=en-EN}}</ref>
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For example, when ]s are precipitated, isotopic equilibration among solids and liquid may cause small differences in the δ<sup>34</sup>S values of co-genetic minerals. The differences between minerals can be used to estimate the temperature of equilibration. The ] and δ<sup>34</sup>S of coexisting ] and sulfides can be used to determine the ] and oxygen fugacity of the ore-bearing fluid during ore formation.
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Scientists measure the ] of ] in rocks and ] to study the ] conditions in past oceans. ] in marine sediment fractionate ] as they take in ] and produce ]. Prior to the 2010s, it was thought that sulfate reduction could fractionate ] up to 46 ]<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Goldhaber |first1=M.B. |last2=Kaplan |first2=I.R. |date=April 1980 |title=Mechanisms of sulfur incorporation and isotope fractionation during early diagenesis in sediments of the gulf of California |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0304420380900638 |journal=Marine Chemistry |language=en |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=95–143 |doi=10.1016/0304-4203(80)90063-8|bibcode=1980MarCh...9...95G }}</ref> and fractionation larger than 46 permil recorded in sediments must be due to ] of sulfur compounds in the sediment. This view has changed since the 2010s as experiments showed that ] can fractionate to 66 permil.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sim |first1=Min Sub |last2=Bosak |first2=Tanja |last3=Ono |first3=Shuhei |date=July 2011 |title=Large Sulfur Isotope Fractionation Does Not Require Disproportionation |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1205103 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=333 |issue=6038 |pages=74–77 |doi=10.1126/science.1205103 |pmid=21719675 |bibcode=2011Sci...333...74S |s2cid=1248182 |issn=0036-8075}}</ref> As substrates for disproportionation are limited by the product of ], the isotopic effect of disproportionation should be less than 16 permil in most sedimentary settings.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tsang |first1=Man-Yin |last2=Böttcher |first2=Michael Ernst |last3=Wortmann |first3=Ulrich Georg |date=August 2023 |title=Estimating the effect of elemental sulfur disproportionation on the sulfur-isotope signatures in sediments |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0009254123002334 |journal=Chemical Geology |language=en |volume=632 |pages=121533 |doi=10.1016/j.chemgeo.2023.121533|s2cid=258600480 }}</ref>
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In ] ecosystems, sulfate is derived mostly from the atmosphere; weathering of ore minerals and evaporites contribute some sulfur. Sulfur with a distinctive isotopic composition has been used to identify pollution sources, and enriched sulfur has been added as a tracer in ] studies. Differences in the ]s can be used in systems where there is sufficient variation in the <sup>34</sup>S of ecosystem components. ] lakes thought to be dominated by atmospheric sources of sulfate have been found to have measurably different <sup>34</sup>S values than lakes believed to be dominated by watershed sources of sulfate.
The FitnessGram™ Pacer Test is a multistage aerobic capacity test that progressively gets more difficult as it continues.
The 20 meter pacer test will begin in 30 seconds. Line up at the start.
The running speed starts slowly, but gets faster each minute after you hear this signal.
A single lap should be completed each time you hear this sound.
Remember to run in a straight line, and run as long as possible.
The second time you fail to complete a lap before the sound, your test is over.
The test will begin on the word start.
On your mark, get ready, start.


The radioactive <sup>35</sup>S is formed in ] of the atmospheric ]. This fact may be used to verify the presence of recent (up to 1 year) atmospheric sediments in various materials. This isotope may be obtained artificially by different ways. In practice, the reaction ] + ] → <sup>35</sup>S + ] is used by irradiating ] with neutrons.<ref>{{Cite conference |last1=Kim |first1=Ik Soo |last2=Kwak |first2=Seung Im |last3=Park |first3=Ul Jae |last4=Bang |first4=Hong Sik |last5=Han |first5=Hyun Soo |date=2005-07-01 |title=Production of Sulfur-35 by the Cation Exchange Process |conference=2005 autumn meeting of the KNS, Busan (Korea, Republic of), 27–28 Oct 2005 |url=https://www.osti.gov/etdeweb/biblio/20765660 |language=en}}</ref> The isotope <sup>35</sup>S is used in various sulfur-containing compounds as a ] for many biological studies, for example, the ].
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Because of the weak ] of <sup>35</sup>S, its compounds are relatively safe as long as they are not ingested or absorbed by the body.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sulfur-35 (35 S) safety information and specific handling precautions |url=https://ehs.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/radioisotope-s35.pdf |website=Yale Environmental Health & Safety}}</ref>
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===Natural occurrence===
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]
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] are due to elemental sulfur and sulfur compounds deposited by active ]es.]]
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]
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], a volcano in East Java, Indonesia, 2009]]
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<sup>32</sup>S is created inside massive stars, at a depth where the temperature exceeds 2.5×10<sup>9</sup>&nbsp;K, by the ] of one nucleus of silicon plus one nucleus of helium.<ref>{{cite journal|first= A. G. W.|last= Cameron |title=Stellar Evolution, Nuclear Astrophysics, and Nucleogenesis|journal=CRL-41|url=https://fas.org/sgp/eprint/CRL-41.pdf|date=1957}}</ref> As this nuclear reaction is part of the ] that produces elements in abundance, sulfur is the 10th ].
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Sulfur, usually as sulfide, is present in many types of ]s. ]s contain on average 2.1% sulfur, and ]s may contain as much as 6.6%. It is normally present as ] (FeS), but there are exceptions, with carbonaceous chondrites containing free sulfur, sulfates and other sulfur compounds.<ref>{{cite book |first=B. |last=Mason |date=1962 |title=Meteorites |location=New York |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/meteorites0000maso|page= |isbn=978-0-908678-84-6}}</ref> The distinctive colors of ]'s ] moon ] are attributed to various forms of molten, solid, and gaseous sulfur.<ref>{{cite journal|last1= Lopes|first1= Rosaly M. C.|author-link=Rosaly Lopes |last2= Williams|first2= David A.|title= Io after Galileo|journal= Reports on Progress in Physics|volume= 68|issue= 2|pages= 303–340 |date= 2005|doi= 10.1088/0034-4885/68/2/R02 |bibcode=2005RPPh...68..303L|s2cid= 44208045}}</ref> In July 2024, elemental sulfur was accidentally discovered to exist on ] after the ] drove over and crushed a rock, revealing sulfur crystals inside it.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Strickland |first=Ashley |date=2024-07-20 |title=NASA's Curiosity rover makes its 'most unexpected' find on Mars |url=https://www.cnn.com/2024/07/20/science/nasa-curiosity-rover-mars-sulfur-rocks/index.html |access-date=2024-07-21 |website=CNN |language=en}}</ref>
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Sulfur is the fifth most common element by mass in the Earth. Elemental sulfur can be found near ]s and ] regions in many parts of the world, especially along the ]; such volcanic deposits are mined in Indonesia, Chile, and Japan. These deposits are polycrystalline, with the largest documented single crystal measuring {{cvt|22|x|16|x|11|cm|in}}.<ref>{{cite journal |url= http://www.minsocam.org/ammin/AM66/AM66_885.pdf |journal=American Mineralogist |volume=66 |pages=885–907 |date=1981 |title=The largest crystals |last=Rickwood |first=P. C.}}</ref> Historically, ] was a major source of sulfur in the ].<ref>{{cite book |last=Kutney |first=Gerald |title=Sulfur: history, technology, applications & industry |date=2007 |publisher=ChemTec |location=Toronto |isbn=978-1-895198-37-9 |oclc=79256100 |page=43}}</ref> Lakes of molten sulfur up to about {{Convert|200|m|abbr=on}} in diameter have been found on the sea floor, associated with ]es, at depths where the boiling point of water is higher than the melting point of sulfur.<ref name="de Ronde-2015">{{cite book |first1=C. E. J. |last1=de Ronde |first2=W. W. Jr. |last2=Chadwick |first3=R. G. |last3=Ditchburn |first4=R. W. |last4=Embley |first5=V. |last5=Tunnicliffe |first6=E. T. |last6=Baker |first7=S. L. |last7=Walker |first8=V. L. |last8=Ferrini |first9=S. M. |last9=Merle |year=2015 |chapter=Molten Sulfur Lakes of Intraoceanic Arc Volcanoes |title=Volcanic Lakes |publisher=Springer |pages=261–288 |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-36833-2 |bibcode=2015vola.book.....R |isbn=978-3-642-36832-5|s2cid=199492543 }}</ref>
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Native sulfur is synthesized by ] acting on ] such as ] in ]s.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Klein |first1=Cornelis |first2=Cornelius S. Jr. |last2=Hurlbut |title=Manual of Mineralogy |publisher=Wiley |year=1985 |edition=20th |pages=265–66 |isbn=0-471-80580-7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mindat.org/min-3826.html|title=Sulphur: Mineral information, data and localities|website=www.mindat.org}}</ref> Significant deposits in salt domes occur along the coast of the ], and in ]s in eastern Europe and western Asia. Native sulfur may be produced by geological processes alone. Fossil-based sulfur deposits from salt domes were once the basis for commercial production in the United States, Russia, Turkmenistan, and Ukraine.<ref name="Nehb-2006" /> Such sources have become of secondary commercial importance, and most are no longer worked but commercial production is still carried out in the ] mine in Poland.
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Common naturally occurring sulfur compounds include the ], such as ] (iron sulfide), ] (mercury sulfide), ] (lead sulfide), ] (zinc sulfide), and ] (antimony sulfide); and the ], such as ] (calcium sulfate), ] (potassium aluminium sulfate), and ] (barium sulfate). On Earth, just as upon Jupiter's moon Io, elemental sulfur occurs naturally in volcanic emissions, including emissions from ]s.
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The main industrial source of sulfur has become ] and ].<ref name="Knight-2014"/>
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==Compounds==
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{{Main article|Sulfur compounds}}
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Common ]s of sulfur range from −2 to +6. Sulfur forms stable compounds with all elements except the ]es.
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===Electron transfer reactions===
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] owes its blue color to a ] radical anion ({{chem|S|3|-}})]]
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Sulfur polycations, {{chem2|S8(2+)}}, {{chem2|S4(2+)}} and {{chem2|S16(2+)}} are produced when sulfur is reacted with oxidizing agents in a strongly acidic solution.<ref>Shriver, Atkins. Inorganic Chemistry, Fifth Edition. W. H. Freeman and Company, New York, 2010; pp 416</ref> The colored solutions produced by dissolving sulfur in ] were first reported as early as 1804 by C.&nbsp;F. Bucholz, but the cause of the color and the structure of the polycations involved was only determined in the late 1960s. {{chem2|S8(2+)}} is deep blue, {{chem2|S4(2+)}} is yellow and {{chem2|S16(2+)}} is red.<ref name="Greenwood-1997b" />
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Reduction of sulfur gives various ]s with the formula {{chem|S|''x''|2-}}, many of which have been obtained in crystalline form. Illustrative is the production of ]:
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{{block indent|{{chem2|4 Na + S8 -> 2 Na2S4}}}}
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Some of these dianions dissociate to give ]s, such as {{chem2|S3-|link=Trisulfur}} gives the blue color of the rock ].
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] (CNT, a). Zig-zag (b) and straight (c) S chains inside double-wall CNTs<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/ncomms3162 |pmid=23851903 |pmc=3717502 |title=Conducting linear chains of sulphur inside carbon nanotubes |journal=Nature Communications |volume=4 |pages=2162 |year=2013 |last1=Fujimori |first1=Toshihiko |last2=Morelos-Gómez |first2=Aarón |last3=Zhu |first3=Zhen |last4=Muramatsu |first4=Hiroyuki |last5=Futamura |first5=Ryusuke |last6=Urita |first6=Koki |last7=Terrones |first7=Mauricio |last8=Hayashi |first8=Takuya |last9=Endo |first9=Morinobu |last10=Young Hong |first10=Sang |last11=Chul Choi |first11=Young |last12=Tománek |first12=David |last13=Kaneko |first13=Katsumi |bibcode=2013NatCo...4.2162F}}</ref>]]
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This reaction highlights a distinctive property of sulfur: its ability to ] (bind to itself by formation of chains). ] of these polysulfide anions produces the ]s, H<sub>2</sub>S<sub>''x''</sub>, where ''x'' = 2, 3, and 4.<ref>{{cite book |title=Handbook of Preparative Inorganic Chemistry |edition=2nd |editor-first=G. |editor-last=Brauer |publisher=Academic Press |year=1963 |location=New York |volume=1 |page=421}}</ref> Ultimately, reduction of sulfur produces sulfide salts:
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{{block indent|16 Na + S<sub>8</sub> → 8 Na<sub>2</sub>S}}
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The interconversion of these species is exploited in the ].
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===Hydrogenation===
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Treatment of sulfur with hydrogen gives ]. When dissolved in water, hydrogen sulfide is mildly acidic:<ref name="Greenwood-1997a">{{cite book |last1=Greenwood |first1=N. N. |last2=Earnshaw |first2=A. |year=1997 |title=Chemistry of the Elements |edition=2nd |location=Oxford |publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann |isbn=0-7506-3365-4}}</ref>
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{{block indent|H<sub>2</sub>S {{eqm}} HS<sup>−</sup> + H<sup>+</sup>}}


Hydrogen sulfide gas and the hydrosulfide anion are extremely toxic to mammals, due to their inhibition of the oxygen-carrying capacity of ] and certain ]s in a manner analogous to ] and ] (see below, under ''precautions'').
The FitnessGram™ Pacer Test is a multistage aerobic capacity test that progressively gets more difficult as it continues.
The 20 meter pacer test will begin in 30 seconds. Line up at the start.
The running speed starts slowly, but gets faster each minute after you hear this signal.
A single lap should be completed each time you hear this sound.
Remember to run in a straight line, and run as long as possible.
The second time you fail to complete a lap before the sound, your test is over.
The test will begin on the word start.
On your mark, get ready, start.


===Combustion===
Feel it
The two principal sulfur oxides are obtained by burning sulfur:
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{{block indent|S + O<sub>2</sub> → SO<sub>2</sub> (])}}
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{{block indent|2 SO<sub>2</sub> + O<sub>2</sub> → 2 SO<sub>3</sub> (])}}
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Many other sulfur oxides are observed including the ] include ], ], disulfur dioxides, and ] containing peroxo groups.
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===Halogenation===
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Sulfur reacts with ] to give the highly reactive ] and the highly inert ].<ref>{{OrgSynth|last=Hasek|first=W. R.|title=1,1,1-Trifluoroheptane|volume=41|page=104|year=1961|doi=10.1002/0471264180.os041.28}}</ref> Whereas fluorine gives S(IV) and S(VI) compounds, chlorine gives S(II) and S(I) derivatives. Thus, ], ], and higher chlorosulfanes arise from the chlorination of sulfur. ] and ] are derivatives of sulfuric acid; ] (SOCl<sub>2</sub>) is a common reagent in ].<ref name="Lauss">{{Ullmann|first1=H.-D.|last1=Lauss|first2=W.|last2=Steffens |title=Sulfur Halides|doi=10.1002/14356007.a25_623}}</ref> Bromine also oxidizes sulfur to form ] and ].<ref name="Lauss" />
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===Pseudohalides===
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===Metal sulfides===
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Sulfur reacts with many metals. Electropositive metals give polysulfide salts. Copper, zinc, and silver are attacked by sulfur; see ]. Although many ] are known, most are prepared by high temperature reactions of the elements.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Vaughan |first1=D. J. |last2=Craig |first2=J. R. |title=Mineral Chemistry of Metal Sulfides |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |year=1978 |isbn=0-521-21489-0}}</ref> Geoscientists also study the isotopes of metal sulfides in rocks and sediment to study environmental conditions in the Earth's past.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tsang |first1=Man-Yin |last2=Inagaki |first2=Fumio |date=2020-05-29 |title=Microbial Life Deep Under the Seafloor—A Story of Not Giving Up |journal=Frontiers for Young Minds |volume=8 |pages=70 |doi=10.3389/frym.2020.00070 |issn=2296-6846 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
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===Organic compounds===
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{{Main|Organosulfur compounds}}
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<gallery caption="Illustrative organosulfur compounds">
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File:L-Cystein - L-Cysteine.svg |(''L'')-], an ] containing a thiol group
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File:Methionin - Methionine.svg|], an amino acid containing a thioether
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File:Thiamin.svg|] or vitamin B<sub>1</sub>
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File:Biotin_structure.svg|] or vitamin B<sub>7</sub>
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File:Penicillin core.svg|], an antibiotic ("R" is the variable group)
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File:Allicin skeletal.svg|], a chemical compound in garlic
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File:Diphenyl disulfide.svg|], a representative disulfide
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File:Dibenzothiophen - Dibenzothiophene.svg|], a component of crude oil
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File:Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid structure.svg|] (PFOS), a surfactant
</gallery>


Some of the main classes of sulfur-containing organic compounds include the following:<ref name="Cremlyn-1996">{{cite book | last = Cremlyn |first=R. J. | title = An Introduction to Organosulfur Chemistry | publisher = John Wiley and Sons | location = Chichester | date = 1996 | isbn = 0-471-95512-4 }}</ref>
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* ]s or mercaptans (so called because they capture mercury as ]) are the sulfur analogs of ]s; treatment of thiols with base gives ] ions.
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* ]s are the sulfur analogs of ]s.
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* ] ions have three groups attached to a cationic sulfur center. ] (DMSP) is one such compound, important in the marine organic ].
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* ]s and ]s are thioethers with one and two oxygen atoms attached to the sulfur atom, respectively. The simplest sulfoxide, ], is a common solvent; a common sulfone is ].
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* ]s are used in many detergents.
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Compounds with carbon–sulfur multiple bonds are uncommon, an exception being ], a volatile colorless liquid that is structurally similar to carbon dioxide. It is used as a reagent to make the polymer ] and many organosulfur compounds. Unlike ], ] is stable only as an extremely dilute gas, found between solar systems.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wilson |first1=R. W. |last2=Penzias |first2=A. A. |last3=Wannier |first3=P. G. |last4=Linke |first4=R. A. |author-link=Robert Woodrow Wilson |author-link2=Arno Allan Penzias |title=Isotopic abundances in interstellar carbon monosulfide |journal=Astrophysical Journal |date=15 March 1976 |volume=204 |pages=L135–L137 |doi=10.1086/182072 |bibcode=1976ApJ...204L.135W |doi-access=free}}</ref>
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Organosulfur compounds are responsible for some of the unpleasant odors of decaying organic matter. They are widely known as the ] in domestic natural gas, garlic odor, and skunk spray, as well as a component of ] odor. Not all organic sulfur compounds smell unpleasant at all concentrations: the sulfur-containing ] ] in small concentrations is the characteristic scent of grapefruit, but has a generic thiol odor at larger concentrations. ], a potent ], was ] as a disabling agent.<ref>{{cite book |last=Banoub |first=Joseph |title=Detection of Biological Agents for the Prevention of Bioterrorism |date=2011 |isbn=978-90-481-9815-3 |oclc=697506461 |page=183 |bibcode=2011dbap.book.....B |doi=10.1007/978-90-481-9815-3 |series=NATO Science for Peace and Security Series A: Chemistry and Biology}}</ref>
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Sulfur–sulfur bonds are a structural component used to stiffen rubber, similar to the disulfide bridges that rigidify proteins (see biological below). In the most common type of industrial "curing" or hardening and strengthening of natural ], elemental sulfur is heated with the rubber to the point that chemical reactions form ] bridges between ] units of the polymer. This process, patented in 1843,{{citation needed|date=September 2024}} made rubber a major industrial product, especially in automobile tires. Because of the heat and sulfur, the process was named ], after the Roman god of the forge and ].
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==History==
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===Antiquity===
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] collection]]
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Being abundantly available in native form, sulfur was known in ancient times and is referred to in the ] (]). ] commonly referred to burning sulfur as "brimstone", giving rise to the term "]" ]s, in which listeners are reminded of the fate of ] that await the unbelieving and unrepentant. It is from this part of the Bible<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sulfur in the Bible (14 instances) |url=https://bible.knowing-jesus.com/words/Sulfur |access-date=2022-05-19 |website=bible.knowing-jesus.com}}</ref> that ] is implied to "smell of sulfur" (likely due to its association with volcanic activity). According to the ], a sulfur ointment was used in ancient ] to treat granular eyelids. Sulfur was used for ] in preclassical ];<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ed0yC98aAKYC&pg=PA242 |title= Archaeomineralogy |isbn= 978-3-540-78593-4 |page= 242 |last1= Rapp |first1= George Robert |date= 4 February 2009|publisher= Springer }}</ref> this is mentioned in the '']''.<ref>. www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved on 16 August 2012.</ref> ] discusses sulfur in book 35 of his '']'', saying that its best-known source is the island of ]. He mentions its use for fumigation, medicine, and bleaching cloth.<ref>''Pliny the Elder on science and technology'', John F. Healy, Oxford University Press, 1999, {{ISBN|0-19-814687-6}}, pp. 247–249.</ref>
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A natural form of sulfur known as {{transliteration|zh|shiliuhuang}} ({{lang|zh|石硫黄}}) was known in China since the 6th century BC and found in ].<ref name="Zhang-1986">{{cite journal|author= Zhang, Yunming|date= 1986|title= The History of Science Society: Ancient Chinese Sulfur Manufacturing Processes|journal= ]|volume= 77|issue= 3|doi= 10.1086/354207|page=487|s2cid= 144187385}}</ref> By the 3rd century, the Chinese had discovered that sulfur could be extracted from ].<ref name="Zhang-1986" /> Chinese ] were interested in sulfur's flammability and its reactivity with certain metals, yet its earliest practical uses were found in ].<ref name="Zhang-1986" /> The '']'' of 1044 AD described various formulas for Chinese ], which is a mixture of ] ({{chem|K|N|O|3}}), ], and sulfur.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Needham |first1=Joseph |author2-link=Robin D. S. Yates |first2=Robin |last2=Yates |year=1994 |title=Science and Civilisation in China, Volume 5: Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 6, Military Technology: Missiles and Sieges |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521327275 |oclc=489677531 |pages=120}}</ref>
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{{multiple image
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| footer = Alchemical signs for sulfur, or the ] elements, and brimstone, an older/archaic name for sulfur<ref>{{cite book |last1=Koch |first1=Rudolf |title=The book of signs : which contains all manner of symbols used from the earliest times to the Middle Ages by primitive peoples and early Christians |date=1955 |location=New York |isbn=0-486-20162-7 |publisher=Dover Publications }}</ref>
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| image1 = Sulphur symbol (fixed width).svg
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}}
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Indian alchemists, practitioners of the "science of chemicals" ({{langx|sa|रसशास्त्र|rasaśāstra}}), wrote extensively about the use of sulfur in alchemical operations with mercury, from the eighth century AD onwards.<ref name="White-1996">{{cite book |last=White |first=David Gordon |title=The Alchemical Body — Siddha Traditions in Medieval India |date=1996 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |isbn=978-0-226-89499-7 |pages=passim}}</ref> In the ] tradition, sulfur is called "the smelly" ({{lang|sa|गन्धक}}, {{transliteration|sa|gandhaka}}).
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Early ]an ] gave sulfur a unique ], a triangle atop a cross (🜍). (This is sometimes confused with the astronomical crossed-spear symbol ⚴ for ].) The variation known as brimstone has a symbol combining a ] atop a ] (🜏). In traditional skin treatment, elemental sulfur was used (mainly in creams) to alleviate such conditions as ], ], ], ], and ]. The mechanism of action is unknown—though elemental sulfur does oxidize slowly to sulfurous acid, which is (through the action of ]) a mild reducing and antibacterial agent.<ref>{{cite journal|doi= 10.1016/S0190-9622(88)70079-1|last1= Lin|first1= A. N.|last2= Reimer|first2= R. J.|last3= Carter|first3= D. M.|title= Sulfur revisited|journal= Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology|volume= 18|issue= 3|pages= 553–558|date= 1988|pmid= 2450900}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi= 10.1016/S0190-9622(08)81225-X|last1= Maibach|first1= H. I.|last2= Surber|first2= C.|last3= Orkin|first3= M.|title= Sulfur revisited|journal= Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology|volume= 23|issue= 1|pages= 154–156|date= 1990 |pmid= 2365870|doi-access= free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1= Gupta|first1= A. K.|last2= Nicol|first2= K.|title= The use of sulfur in dermatology|journal= Journal of Drugs in Dermatology|volume= 3|issue= 4|pages= 427–31|date= 2004 |pmid= 15303787}}</ref>
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===Modern times===
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] activity; in the past it was used against acne vulgaris, rosacea, seborrheic dermatitis, dandruff, pityriasis versicolor, scabies, and warts.<ref name="Gupta-2004">{{cite journal |last1=Gupta |first1=Aditya K |last2=Nicol |first2=Karyn |title=The Use of Sulfur in Dermatology |journal=Journal of Drugs in Dermatology |date=Jul–Aug 2004 |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=427–431 |pmid=15303787 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15303787/}}</ref> This 1881 advertisement baselessly claims efficacy against rheumatism, gout, baldness, and graying of hair.]]
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Sulfur appears in a column of fixed (non-acidic) ] in a chemical table of 1718.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Donovan |first=Arthur |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0-fOasz2GUMC&pg=PA66|title=Antoine Lavoisier: Science, Administration and Revolution |publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1996|isbn=978-0-521-56672-8|pages=66|language=en}}</ref> ] used sulfur in combustion experiments, writing of some of these in 1777.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Poirier|first=Jean-Pierre |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u5h0BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA107 |title=Lavoisier: Chemist, Biologist, Economist |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|year=1998 |isbn=978-0-8122-1649-3 |pages=107–8 |language=en}}</ref>
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Sulfur deposits in ] were the dominant source for more than a century. By the late 18th century, about 2,000 tonnes per year of sulfur were imported into ], France, for the production of ] for use in the ]. In ] Britain, with the repeal of ]s on salt in 1824, demand for sulfur from Sicily surged. The increasing British control and exploitation of the mining, refining, and transportation of sulfur, coupled with the failure of this lucrative export to transform Sicily's backward and impoverished economy, led to the ], when ] gave a monopoly of the sulfur industry to a French firm, violating an earlier 1816 trade agreement with Britain. A peaceful solution was eventually negotiated by France.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wZg4ecXXmNYC|title=Sicily and the Unification of Italy: Liberal Policy and Local Power, 1859–1866|author=Riall, Lucy|date=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|access-date=7 February 2013 |isbn=9780191542619}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Prelude to the Sulphur War of 1840: The Neapolitan Perspective |journal=European History Quarterly|date=April 1995|volume=25|issue=2|pages=163–180 |doi=10.1177/026569149502500201|last1=Thomson|first1=D. W. |s2cid=145807900}}</ref>
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In 1867, elemental sulfur was discovered in underground deposits in ] and ]. The highly successful ] was developed to extract this resource.<ref name="Botsch-2001">{{cite journal|first= Walter|last= Botsch|title= Chemiker, Techniker, Unternehmer: Zum 150. Geburtstag von Hermann Frasch|journal= Chemie in unserer Zeit|date= 2001|volume= 35|issue= 5|language= de|pages= 324–331|doi= 10.1002/1521-3781(200110)35:5<324::AID-CIUZ324>3.0.CO;2-9}}</ref>


In the late 18th century, ] makers used molten sulfur to produce ].<ref name="Mass-2003">{{cite journal|doi=10.1088/0957-0233/14/9/311|issn=0957-0233 |title= Pennsylvania German sulfur-inlaid furniture: characterization, reproduction, and ageing phenomena of the inlays|journal= Measurement Science and Technology|volume= 14|issue= 9|pages= 1598|year= 2003|last1= Mass|first1= Jennifer L|last2= Anderson|first2= Mark J|s2cid=250882259 }}</ref> Molten sulfur is sometimes still used for setting steel bolts into drilled concrete holes where high shock resistance is desired for floor-mounted equipment attachment points. Pure powdered sulfur was used as a medicinal tonic and laxative.<ref name="Nehb-2006" />
The FitnessGram™ Pacer Test is a multistage aerobic capacity test that progressively gets more difficult as it continues.
The 20 meter pacer test will begin in 30 seconds. Line up at the start.
The running speed starts slowly, but gets faster each minute after you hear this signal.
A single lap should be completed each time you hear this sound.
Remember to run in a straight line, and run as long as possible.
The second time you fail to complete a lap before the sound, your test is over.
The test will begin on the word start.
On your mark, get ready, start.


Since the advent of the ], the majority of sulfur is used to make sulfuric acid for a wide range of uses, particularly fertilizer.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kogel|first=Jessica|title=Industrial minerals & rocks: commodities, markets, and uses|date=2006|publisher=Littleton|location=Colorado|isbn=978-0-87335-233-8|edition=7th|page=935|oclc=62805047}}</ref>
Feel it
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In recent times, the main source of sulfur has become ] and ]. This is due to the requirement to remove sulfur from fuels in order to prevent ], and has resulted in a surplus of sulfur.<ref name="Knight-2014"/>
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===Spelling and etymology===
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''Sulfur'' is derived from the Latin word ''{{lang|la|sulpur}}'', which was ] to ''{{lang|la|sulphur}}'' in the erroneous belief that the Latin word came from Greek. This spelling was later reinterpreted as representing an /f/ sound and resulted in the spelling ''{{lang|la|sulfur}}'', which appears in Latin toward the end of the ]. The true Ancient Greek word for sulfur, {{lang|grc|θεῖον}}, ''theîon'' (from earlier {{lang|grc|θέειον}}, ''théeion''), is the source of the international chemical prefix '']''. The Modern Standard Greek word for sulfur is θείο, ''theío''.
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In 12th-century ], it was ''{{lang|xno|sulfre}}''. In the 14th century, the erroneously Hellenized Latin ''{{lang|la|-ph-}}'' was restored in Middle English ''{{lang|enm|sulphre}}''. By the 15th century, both full Latin spelling variants ''sulfur'' and ''sulphur'' became common in English. The parallel ''f~ph'' spellings continued in Britain until the 19th century, when the word was standardized as ''sulphur''.<ref name="OED">{{Cite OED|sulphur}}</ref> On the other hand, ''sulfur'' was the form chosen in the United States, whereas Canada uses both.
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The ] adopted the spelling ''sulfur'' in 1990<ref>{{Cite journal|title=So long sulphur|date=4 August 2009|journal=Nature Chemistry |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=333 |doi=10.1038/nchem.301 |pmid=21378874 |bibcode=2009NatCh...1Q.333. |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry: Inorganic Chemistry Division, Commission on Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry |title=Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry, (Recommendations 1990) |date=1990 |publisher=Blackwell Scientific Publications |location=Oxford, UK |pages=39,40,41,240,247}}</ref> as did the Nomenclature Committee of the ] in 1992, restoring the spelling ''sulfur'' to Britain.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McNaught |first1=Alan |title=Journal style update |journal=The Analyst |volume=116 |issue=11 |page=1094 |date=1991 |doi=10.1039/AN9911601094 |bibcode=1991Ana...116.1094M}}</ref> ] note that "in chemistry and other technical uses ... the ''-f-'' spelling is now the standard form for this and related words in British as well as US contexts, and is increasingly used in general contexts as well."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/sulphur |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161120085132/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/sulphur |url-status=dead |archive-date=20 November 2016 |title=sulphur – definition of sulphur in English |website=Oxford Dictionaries |access-date=2016-11-19}}</ref>
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==Production==
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], East Java, Indonesia. This image shows the dangerous and rugged conditions the miners face, including toxic smoke and high drops, as well as their lack of protective equipment. The pipes over which they are standing are for condensing sulfur vapors.]]
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Sulfur may be found by itself and historically was usually obtained in this form; ] has also been a source of sulfur.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Riegel |first1=Emil |last2=Kent |first2=James |title=Kent and Riegel's Handbook of Industrial Chemistry and Biotechnology |volume=1 |date=2007 |isbn=978-0-387-27842-1 |oclc=74650396 |page=1171 |publisher=Springer |bibcode=2007karh.book......}}</ref> In volcanic regions in ], in ancient times, it was found on the surface of the Earth, and the "]" was used: sulfur deposits were piled and stacked in brick kilns built on sloping hillsides, with airspaces between them. Then, some sulfur was pulverized, spread over the stacked ore and ignited, causing the free sulfur to melt down the hills. Eventually the surface-borne deposits played out, and miners excavated veins that ultimately dotted the Sicilian landscape with labyrinthine mines. Mining was unmechanized and labor-intensive, with pickmen freeing the ore from the rock, and mine-boys or '']'' carrying baskets of ore to the surface, often through a mile or more of tunnels. Once the ore was at the surface, it was reduced and extracted in smelting ovens. The conditions in ] were horrific, prompting ] to write "I am not prepared just now to say to what extent I believe in a physical hell in the next world, but a sulfur mine in Sicily is about the nearest thing to hell that I expect to see in this life."<ref>{{cite book |last=Washington|first=Booker T.|title=The Man Farthest Down: A Record of Observation and Study in Europe |year=1912 |url=https://archive.org/stream/manfarthestdownr00wash#page/214 |publisher=Doubleday, Page.|page=214}}</ref> Sulfur is still mined from surface deposits in poorer nations with volcanoes, such as ], and worker conditions have not improved much since Booker T. Washington's days.<ref>{{cite journal |last=McElvaney|first=Kevin|date=25 February 2015 |title=The Men Who Mine Volcanos |journal=The Atlantic |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/features/archive/2015/02/the-men-who-mine-volcanoes-indonesia/385913/|access-date=26 February 2015}}</ref>
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Elemental sulfur was extracted from ]s (where it sometimes occurs in nearly pure form) until the late 20th century, when it became a side product of other industrial processes such as in oil refining, in which sulfur is undesired. As a mineral, native sulfur under salt domes is thought to be a fossil mineral resource, produced by the action of anaerobic bacteria on sulfate deposits. It was removed from such salt-dome mines mainly by the ].<ref name="Nehb-2006" /> In this method, superheated water was pumped into a native sulfur deposit to melt the sulfur, and then compressed air returned the 99.5% pure melted product to the surface. Throughout the 20th century this procedure produced elemental sulfur that required no further purification. Due to a limited number of such sulfur deposits and the high cost of working them, this process for mining sulfur has not had significant use anywhere in the world since 2002.<ref name="Eow-2002">{{cite journal|last1= Eow|first1= John S.|title= Recovery of sulfur from sour acid gas: A review of the technology|journal= Environmental Progress|volume= 21|issue= 3|pages= 143–162|date= 2002|doi= 10.1002/ep.670210312|bibcode= 2002EnvPr..21..143E}}</ref><ref name="Schreiner-2008">{{cite journal |last1= Schreiner|first1= Bernhard|title= Der Claus-Prozess. Reich an Jahren und bedeutender denn je|journal= Chemie in unserer Zeit |volume= 42|issue= 6|pages= 378–392|date= 2008|doi= 10.1002/ciuz.200800461}}</ref>
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], stockpiled for shipment in ], British Columbia]]
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Since then, sulfur has typically been produced from petroleum, ], and related fossil resources, from which it is obtained mainly as ].<ref name="Knight-2014"/> ]s, undesirable impurities in petroleum, may be upgraded by subjecting them to ], which cleaves the C–S bonds:<ref name="Eow-2002" /><ref name="Schreiner-2008" />
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{{block indent|R-S-R + 2 H<sub>2</sub> → 2 RH + H<sub>2</sub>S}}
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The resulting hydrogen sulfide from this process, and also as it occurs in natural gas, is converted into elemental sulfur by the ], which entails oxidation of some hydrogen sulfide to sulfur dioxide and then the ] of the two:<ref name="Eow-2002" /><ref name="Schreiner-2008" />
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{{block indent|3 O<sub>2</sub> + 2 H<sub>2</sub>S → 2 SO<sub>2</sub> + 2 H<sub>2</sub>O}}
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{{block indent|SO<sub>2</sub> + 2 H<sub>2</sub>S → 3 S + 2 H<sub>2</sub>O}}
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]
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Due to the high sulfur content of the ], stockpiles of elemental sulfur from this process exist throughout ], Canada.<ref name="Hyndman-1982">{{cite book|last1= Hyndman|first1= A. W.|last2= Liu|first2= J. K.|last3= Denney|first3= D. W.|title= Sulfur: New Sources and Uses|volume= 183|pages= 69–82|date= 1982|doi= 10.1021/bk-1982-0183.ch005|chapter= Sulfur Recovery from Oil Sands|series= ACS Symposium Series|isbn= 978-0-8412-0713-4}}</ref> Another way of storing sulfur is as a ] for concrete, the resulting product having some desirable properties (see ]).<ref name="Mohamed-2010">{{cite book|last1=Mohamed|first1=Abdel-Mohsen Onsy|last2=El-Gamal|first2=Maisa M.|title=Sulfur concrete for the construction industry: a sustainable development approach|date=2010|publisher=J. Ross |location=]|isbn=978-1-60427-005-1|oclc=531718953 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=OYecyRmnTEkC&pg=PA104|pages=104–105, 109}}</ref>
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The world production of sulfur in 2011 amounted to 69&nbsp;million tonnes (Mt), with more than 15 countries contributing more than 1&nbsp;Mt each. Countries producing more than 5 Mt are ] (9.6), the ] (8.8), ] (7.1) and ] (7.1).<ref>Apodaca, Lori E. (2012) . Mineral Commodity Summaries. ].</ref> Production has been slowly increasing from 1900 to 2010; the price was unstable in the 1980s and around 2010.<ref name="Apodaca-2010" />
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==Applications==
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===Sulfuric acid===
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Elemental sulfur is used mainly as a precursor to other chemicals. Approximately 85% (1989) is converted to ] (H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>):
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{{block indent|{{frac|1|8}} {{chem2|S8}} + {{frac|3|2}} {{chem2|O2}} + {{chem2|H2O}} → {{chem2|H2SO4}}}}
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]
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In 2010, the United States produced more sulfuric acid than any other inorganic industrial chemical.<ref name="Apodaca-2010">{{cite web|title= Mineral Yearbook 2010: Sulfur|author=Apodaca, Lori E. |publisher= United States Geological Survey|url= https://d9-wret.s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com/assets/palladium/production/mineral-pubs/sulfur/myb1-2010-sulfu.pdf}}</ref> The principal use for the acid is the extraction of phosphate ores for the production of fertilizer manufacturing. Other applications of sulfuric acid include oil refining, wastewater processing, and mineral extraction.<ref name="Nehb-2006" />
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===Other important sulfur chemistry===
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Sulfur reacts directly with methane to give ], which is used to manufacture ] and ].<ref name="Nehb-2006">{{cite book |last1=Nehb |first1=Wolfgang|last2=Vydra|first2=Karel |title=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry |date=2006|publisher=Wiley-VCH Verlag|doi=10.1002/14356007.a25_507.pub2 |chapter=Sulfur |isbn=978-3-527-30673-2}}</ref> One of the uses of elemental sulfur is in ] of rubber, where ] chains crosslink organic polymers.<!--need something on pulping--> Large quantities of ]s are used to ] ] and to preserve ]. Many ]s and ]s (e.g. ]) are sulfate derivatives. ], gypsum (CaSO<sub>4</sub>·2H<sub>2</sub>O) is mined on the scale of 100&nbsp;million ]s each year for use in ] and fertilizers.
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When silver-based ] was widespread, sodium and ammonium ] were widely used as "fixing agents". Sulfur is a component of ] ("black powder").
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===Fertilizer===
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]s synthesized by ] such as ] and ] contain ] groups (] and ] respectively). The ] ] protecting many living organisms against ]s and ] also contains organic sulfur. Some ]s such as ] and ] also produce different ] such as ] responsible of lacrymal irritation (onions), or ] and ] (garlic). ]s, commonly found in ]s and ]s are often a sufficient natural source of sulfur for plants and bacteria. ] of ] (SO<sub>2</sub>) is also a common artificial source (]) of sulfur for the soils. Under normal circumstances, in most agricultural soils, sulfur is not a ] for plants and ]s (see ]). However, in some circumstances, soils can be depleted in ], e.g. if this later is leached by ] (]) or if the requirements in sulfur for some types of crops are high. This explains that sulfur is increasingly recognized and used as a component of ]s. The most important form of sulfur for fertilizer is ], commonly found in nature as the mineral ] (CaSO<sub>4</sub>·2H<sub>2</sub>O). Elemental sulfur is ] (not soluble in water) and cannot be used directly by plants. Elemental sulfur (ES) is sometimes mixed with ] to amend depleted soils for crops with high requirement in organo-sulfur. Over time, ] ] processes with ] ] and ] can ] and convert elemental sulfur to soluble derivatives, which can then be used by microorganisms and plants. Sulfur improves the efficiency of other essential plant nutrients, particularly ] and phosphorus.<ref name="sulphurinstitute-2020">{{Cite web |url=https://www.sulphurinstitute.org/about-sulphur/faq/#plants |title=FAQ – The Sulphur Institute |date=2020 |website=sulphurinstitute.org |publisher=] |access-date=27 February 2020}}</ref> Biologically produced sulfur particles are naturally ] due to a ] coating and are easier to disperse over the land in a spray of diluted slurry, resulting in a faster uptake by plants.
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The plants requirement for sulfur equals or exceeds the requirement for ]. It is an ] growth, ] formation of legumes, and immunity and defense systems. Sulfur deficiency has become widespread in many countries in Europe.<ref>{{cite journal|doi= 10.1006/jcrs.1998.0241|title= Sulphur Assimilation and Effects on Yield and Quality of Wheat|date= 1999|last1= Zhao|first1= F.|journal= Journal of Cereal Science|volume= 30|issue= 1|pages= 1–17|last2= Hawkesford|first2= M. J.|last3= McGrath|first3= S. P.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title= Diagnosing sulfur deficiency in field-grown oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)|doi= 10.1023/A:1026503812267|date= 2000|last1= Blake-Kalff|first1= M. M. A.|journal= Plant and Soil|volume= 225|issue= 1/2|pages= 95–107|bibcode= 2000PlSoi.225...95B|s2cid= 44208638}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi= 10.1007/BF00747690|title= Plant nutrient sulphur-a review of nutrient balance, environmental impact and fertilizers|date= 1996|last1= Ceccotti|first1= S. P.|journal= Fertilizer Research|volume= 43|issue= 1–3|pages= 117–125|s2cid= 42207099}}</ref> Because atmospheric inputs of sulfur continue to decrease, the deficit in the sulfur input/output is likely to increase unless sulfur fertilizers are used. Atmospheric inputs of sulfur decrease because of actions taken to limit ]s.<ref name="NASA-2011">{{Citation|title=Glossary |at=acid rain |publisher=] |location=United States |url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Glossary/?mode=all |access-date=February 15, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111213175357/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Glossary/?mode=all |archive-date=December 13, 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="sulphurinstitute-2020" />
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===Fungicide and pesticide===<!--] redirs here-->
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Elemental sulfur is one of the oldest fungicides and ]s. "Dusting sulfur", elemental sulfur in powdered form, is a common fungicide for grapes, strawberry, many vegetables and several other crops. It has a good efficacy against a wide range of ] diseases as well as black spot. In organic production, sulfur is the most important fungicide. It is the only fungicide used in ] farmed apple production against the main disease ] under colder conditions. Biosulfur (biologically produced elemental sulfur with hydrophilic characteristics) can also be used for these applications.
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Two hundred forty-seven; end of level twenty-one, end of test
Standard-formulation dusting sulfur is applied to crops with a sulfur duster or ]. Wettable sulfur is the commercial name for dusting sulfur formulated with additional ingredients to make it water ].<ref name="Mohamed-2010" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.freepatentsonline.com/3398227.pdf|title=Method for Preparation of Wettable Sulfur|access-date= 20 May 2010|author= Every, Richard L.|display-authors= etal|date= 20 August 1968}}</ref> It has similar applications and is used as a ] against ] and other mold-related problems with plants and soil.

Elemental sulfur powder is used as an "]" (i.e., "green") ] (actually an ]) against ]s and ]s. A common method of application is dusting the clothing or limbs with sulfur powder.

A diluted solution of ] (made by combining ] with elemental sulfur in water) is used as a dip for pets to destroy ], ], and other ] and ].

Sulfur candles of almost pure sulfur were burned to ] structures and wine barrels, but are now considered too toxic for residences.

===Pharmaceuticals===
{{main|Sulfur (pharmacy)}}
Sulfur (specifically ], S<sub>8</sub>) is used in pharmaceutical skin preparations for the treatment of ] and other conditions. It acts as a ] agent and also kills bacteria, fungi, ] mites, and other parasites.<ref name="Springer-1978">{{cite book|title=Hagers Handbuch der Pharmazeutischen Praxis|edition=4th|publisher=Springer|location=Berlin–Heidelberg–New York|language=de|date=1978|volume=6B|pages=672–9|isbn=978-3-540-07738-1}}</ref> Precipitated sulfur and colloidal sulfur are used, in form of ]s, creams, powders, soaps, and bath additives, for the treatment of ], ], and ].<ref name="Arzneibuch-Kommentar">{{cite book|title=Arzneibuch-Kommentar. Wissenschaftliche Erläuterungen zum Europäischen Arzneibuch und zum Deutschen Arzneibuch|trans-title=Pharmacopoeia Commentary. Scientific annotations to the European Pharmacopoeia and the German Pharmacopoeia|publisher=Wissenschaftliche Verlagsgesellschaft|location=Stuttgart|date=2004|language=de|isbn=978-3-8047-2575-1|at=Monographie ''Schwefel zum äußerlichen Gebrauch'' |edition=23rd}}</ref>

Many drugs contain sulfur.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Scott |first1=Kevin A. |last2=Njardarson |first2=Jon T. |title=Analysis of US FDA-Approved Drugs Containing Sulfur Atoms |date=2019 |url=https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10218659 |format=PDF |work=Sulfur Chemistry |series=Topics in Current Chemistry Collections |pages=1–34 |editor-last=Jiang |editor-first=Xuefeng |access-date=2023-03-08 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-25598-5_1 |isbn=978-3-030-25598-5 }}</ref> Early examples include antibacterial ], known as ''sulfa drugs''. A more recent example is mucolytic ]. Sulfur is a part of many bacterial defense molecules. Most ] antibiotics, including the ]s, ] and ]s contain sulfur.<ref name="Cremlyn-1996" />

=== Batteries ===
Due to their high energy density and the availability of sulfur, there is ongoing research in creating rechargeable ]. Until now, carbonate electrolytes have caused failures in such batteries after a single cycle. In February 2022, researchers at ] have not only created a prototypical battery that lasted 4000 recharge cycles, but also found the first monoclinic gamma sulfur that remained stable below 95 degrees Celsius.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Stabilization of gamma sulfur at room temperature to enable the use of carbonate electrolyte in Li–S batteries |journal=Communications Chemistry |last=Pai |first=Rahul |date=2022-02-10 |volume=5 |issue=1 |page=17 |doi=10.1038/s42004-022-00626-2|pmid=36697747 |pmc=9814344 |s2cid=246704531 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Biological role==
Sulfur is an essential component of all living ]. It is the eighth most abundant element in the human body by weight,<ref name="sulphurinstitute-2021">{{cite news |title=Sulphur and the Human Body |url=https://www.sulphurinstitute.org/pub/?id=8c64bf34-bc30-5bd9-0719-f6de83f7e841 |access-date=3 April 2021 |publisher=The Sulfur Institute}}</ref> about equal in abundance to ], and slightly greater than ] and ].<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is the body made of? |url=https://www.newscientist.com/question/what-is-the-body-made-of/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211103173257/https://www.newscientist.com/question/what-is-the-body-made-of/ |archive-date=November 3, 2021 |access-date=November 9, 2021 |website=]}}</ref> A {{convert|70|kg|abbr=on}} human body contains about {{Convert|140|g}} of sulfur.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Helmenstine |first=Anne |date=February 3, 2019 |title=Elemental Composition of the Human Body by Mass |url=https://www.thoughtco.com/elemental-composition-human-body-by-mass-608192 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413013702/https://www.thoughtco.com/elemental-composition-human-body-by-mass-608192 |archive-date=April 13, 2021 |access-date=November 21, 2021 |website=]}}</ref> The main dietary source of sulfur for humans is sulfur-containing amino-acids,<ref name="Parcell-2002">{{Cite journal |last=Parcell |first=Stephen |date=February 2002 |title=Sulfur in human nutrition and applications in medicine |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11896744/ |journal=Alternative Medicine Review |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=22–44 |issn=1089-5159 |pmid=11896744}}</ref> which can be found in plant and animal proteins.<ref name="Ingenbleek-2013">{{Cite journal |last1=Ingenbleek |first1=Yves |last2=Kimura |first2=Hideo |date=July 2013 |title=Nutritional essentiality of sulfur in health and disease |journal=Nutrition Reviews |volume=71 |issue=7 |pages=413–432 |doi=10.1111/nure.12050 |issn=1753-4887 |pmid=23815141|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Transferring sulfur between inorganic and biomolecules ===
{{See also|Sulfur cycle|Sulfur metabolism}}

In the 1880s, while studying '']'' (a bacterium living in a sulfur rich environment), ] found that it oxidized ] (H<sub>2</sub>S) as an energy source, forming intracellular sulfur droplets. Winogradsky referred to this form of metabolism as inorgoxidation (oxidation of inorganic compounds).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dworkin |first=Martin |date=March 2012 |title=Sergei Winogradsky: a founder of modern microbiology and the first microbial ecologist |journal=FEMS Microbiology Reviews |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=364–379 |doi=10.1111/j.1574-6976.2011.00299.x |issn=1574-6976 |pmid=22092289|doi-access=free }}</ref> Another contributor, who continued to study it was ].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Waksman |first1=S. A. |last2=Starkey |first2=R. L. |title=On the Growth and Respiration of Sulfur-Oxidizing Bacteria |date=1923-01-20 |journal=The Journal of General Physiology |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=285–310 |doi=10.1085/jgp.5.3.285 |issn=0022-1295 |pmc=2140527 |pmid=19871997}}</ref> Primitive bacteria that live around deep ocean ] oxidize hydrogen sulfide for their nutrition, as discovered by ].<ref name="BBC_Elements-2014" />

Sulfur oxidizers can use as energy sources reduced sulfur compounds, including hydrogen sulfide, elemental sulfur, ], ], and various ] (e.g., ]).<ref>{{cite journal |author= Pronk JT |author2= Meulenberg R |author3= Hazeu W |author4= Bos P |author5= Kuenen JG |date= 1990 |title= Oxidation of reduced inorganic sulphur compounds by acidophilic thiobacilli |journal= FEMS Microbiology Letters |volume= 75 |issue= 2–3 |pages= 293–306 |doi= 10.1111/j.1574-6968.1990.tb04103.x |df= dmy-all|doi-access= free }}</ref> They depend on enzymes such as ] and ] to oxidize sulfur to sulfate. Some ]s can even use the energy contained in sulfur compounds to produce sugars, a process known as ]. Some ] and ] use hydrogen sulfide in place of water as the ] in chemosynthesis, a process similar to ] that produces sugars and uses oxygen as the ]. Sulfur-based chemosynthesis may be simplifiedly compared with photosynthesis:

{{block indent|H<sub>2</sub>S + CO<sub>2</sub> → sugars + S}}
{{block indent|H<sub>2</sub>O + CO<sub>2</sub> → sugars + O<sub>2</sub>}}

There are bacteria combining these two ways of nutrition: ] and ].<ref>{{Citation |last1=Frigaard |first1=Niels-Ulrik |title=Sulfur Metabolism in Phototrophic Sulfur Bacteria |date=2008-01-01 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0065291108000027 |volume=54 |pages=103–200 |editor-last=Poole |editor-first=Robert K. |publisher=Academic Press |language=en |access-date=2022-05-17 |last2=Dahl |first2=Christiane|series=Advances in Microbial Physiology |doi=10.1016/S0065-2911(08)00002-7 |pmid=18929068 |isbn=9780123743237 }}</ref> Also sulfur-oxidizing bacteria can go into symbiosis with larger organisms, enabling the later to use hydrogen sulfide as food to be oxidized. Example: the ].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cavanaugh |first=Colleen M. |date=1994 |title=Microbial Symbiosis: Patterns of Diversity in the Marine Environment |journal=American Zoologist |volume=34 |pages=79–89 |doi=10.1093/icb/34.1.79 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

There are ], that, by contrast, "breathe sulfate" instead of oxygen. They use organic compounds or molecular hydrogen as the energy source. They use sulfur as the electron acceptor, and reduce various oxidized sulfur compounds back into sulfide, often into hydrogen sulfide. They can grow on other partially oxidized sulfur compounds (e.g. thiosulfates, thionates, polysulfides, sulfites).

There are studies pointing that many deposits of native sulfur in places that were the bottom of ] have biological origin.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jones |first1=Galen E. |last2=Starkey |first2=Robert L. |last3=Feely |first3=Herbert W. |last4=Kulp |first4=J. Laurence |date=1956-06-22 |title=Biological Origin of Native Sulfur in Salt Domes of Texas and Louisiana |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.123.3208.1124 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=123 |issue=3208 |pages=1124–1125 |doi=10.1126/science.123.3208.1124 |pmid=17793426 |bibcode=1956Sci...123.1124J |issn=0036-8075}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Philip |first1=G. |last2=Wali |first2=A. M. A. |last3=Aref |first3=M. A. M. |date=1994-09-01 |title=On the origin of native sulfur deposits in Gebel El Zeit, Gulf of Suez, Egypt |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03175232 |journal=Carbonates and Evaporites |language=en |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=223–232 |doi=10.1007/BF03175232 |bibcode=1994CarEv...9..223P |s2cid=128827551 |issn=1878-5212}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Petrography and mineralogy of the crystalline limestone of Fatha Formation from Mishraq area, Iraq |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330038794 |access-date=2022-04-15 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> These studies indicate that this native sulfur have been obtained through biological activity, but what is responsible for that (sulfur-oxidizing bacteria or sulfate-reducing bacteria) is still unknown for sure.

Sulfur is absorbed by ]s ]s from soil as ] and transported as a phosphate ester. Sulfate is reduced to sulfide via sulfite before it is incorporated into ] and other organosulfur compounds.<ref name="Heldt-1996">{{cite book |last=Heldt |first=Hans-Walter |title=Pflanzenbiochemie |publisher=Spektrum Akademischer Verlag |year=1996 |isbn=978-3-8274-0103-8 |place=Heidelberg |pages=321–333 |language=de}}</ref>

{{block indent|{{chem2|SO4(2-)}} → {{chem2|SO3(2-)}} → {{chem2|H2S}} → cysteine (thiol) → methionine (thioether)}}

While the plants' role in transferring sulfur to animals by ]s is more or less understood, the role of sulfur bacteria is just getting investigated.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kuenen |first1=J. G. |last2=Beudeker |first2=R. F. |date=1982-09-13 |title=Microbiology of thiobacilli and other sulphur-oxidizing autotrophs, mixotrophs and heterotrophs |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6127737/ |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences |volume=298 |issue=1093 |pages=473–497 |doi=10.1098/rstb.1982.0093 |issn=0962-8436 |pmid=6127737|bibcode=1982RSPTB.298..473K }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wasmund |first1=Kenneth |last2=Mußmann |first2=Marc |last3=Loy |first3=Alexander |date=August 2017 |title=The life sulfuric: microbial ecology of sulfur cycling in marine sediments: Microbial sulfur cycling in marine sediments |journal=Environmental Microbiology Reports |language=en |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=323–344 |doi=10.1111/1758-2229.12538 |pmc=5573963 |pmid=28419734}}</ref>

===Protein and organic metabolites===
In all forms of life, most of the sulfur is contained in two ]s (] and ]), thus the element is present in all ]s that contain these amino acids, as well as in respective ]s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gutiérrez-Preciado |first1=A. |last2=Romero |first2=H. |last3=Peimbert |first3=M. |date=2010 |title=An Evolutionary Perspective on Amino Acids |url=https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/an-evolutionary-perspective-on-amino-acids-14568445/ |journal=Nature Education |volume=3 |issue=9 |page=29}}</ref> Some of the sulfur is comprised in certain metabolites—many of which are ]—and sulfated polysaccharides of ] (]s, ]).
]
Proteins, to execute their ], need to have specific space geometry. Formation of this geometry is performed in a process called ], and is provided by intra- and inter-molecular bonds. The process has several stages. While at premier stages a polypeptide chain folds due to ]s, at later stages folding is provided (apart from hydrogen bonds) by ]s between two sulfur atoms of two cysteine residues (so called disulfide bridges) at different places of a chain (tertiary protein structure) as well as between two cysteine residues in two separated protein subunits (quaternary protein structure). Both structures easily may be seen in ]. As the ] of a covalent disulfide bridge is higher than the energy of a ] or hydrophobic interaction, higher disulfide bridges content leads to higher energy needed for protein ]. In general disulfide bonds are necessary in proteins functioning outside cellular space, and they do not change proteins' conformation (geometry), but serve as its stabilizers.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Alberts |first1=Bruce |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26830/#_A436_ |title=Molecular Biology of the Cell. 4th edition. |last2=Johnson |first2=Alexander |last3=Lewis |first3=Julian |last4=Raff |first4=Martin |last5=Roberts |first5=Keith |last6=Walter |first6=Peter |publisher=Garland Science |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8153-3218-3 |location=New York |language=en}}</ref> Within ] cysteine residues of proteins are saved in reduced state (i.e. in -SH form) by ]s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Arnér |first1=Elias S. J. |last2=Holmgren |first2=Arne |date=25 December 2001 |title=Physiological functions of thioredoxin and thioredoxin reductase: Thioredoxin and thioredoxin reductase |journal=European Journal of Biochemistry |language=en |volume=267 |issue=20 |pages=6102–6109 |doi=10.1046/j.1432-1327.2000.01701.x |pmid=11012661 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

This property manifests in following examples. ] is stable enough to be applied as a drug.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lysozyme |url=https://www.drugs.com/international/lysozyme.html |access-date=2022-05-19 |website=Drugs.com |language=en}}</ref> Feathers and hair have relative strength, and consisting in them ] is considered indigestible by most organisms. However, there are fungi and bacteria containing ], and are able to destruct keratin.

Many important cellular enzymes use prosthetic groups ending with -SH moieties to handle reactions involving acyl-containing biochemicals: two common examples from basic metabolism are ] and ].<ref name="Nelson-2000">{{cite book|isbn= 978-1-57259-153-0|last1= Nelson|first1= D. L.|last2= Cox|first2= M. M.|title= Lehninger, Principles of Biochemistry|edition= 3rd|publisher= Worth Publishing|place= New York|date= 2000|url-access= registration|url= https://archive.org/details/lehningerprincip01lehn}}</ref> Cysteine-related metabolites ] and ] are other sulfur-containing amino acids that are similar in structure, but not coded by ], and are not part of the ] of proteins, take part in various locations of mammalian physiology.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Selhub |first=J. |date=1999-07-01 |title=Homocysteine metabolism |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.nutr.19.1.217 |journal=Annual Review of Nutrition |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=217–246 |doi=10.1146/annurev.nutr.19.1.217 |pmid=10448523 |issn=0199-9885}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Huxtable |first=R. J. |date=1992-01-01 |title=Physiological actions of taurine |url=https://journals.physiology.org/doi/abs/10.1152/physrev.1992.72.1.101 |journal=Physiological Reviews |volume=72 |issue=1 |pages=101–163 |doi=10.1152/physrev.1992.72.1.101 |pmid=1731369 |issn=0031-9333}}</ref> Two of the 13 classical vitamins, ] and ], contain sulfur, and serve as cofactors to several enzymes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Function of Biotin |url=https://www.chem.uwec.edu/webpapers2001/barkacs/pages/function.html |access-date=2022-06-10 |website=www.chem.uwec.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Edwards |first=Katie A. |title=Thiamine Biochemistry |url=http://thiamine.dnr.cornell.edu/Thiamine_biochemistry.html |access-date=2022-06-10 |website=thiamine.dnr.cornell.edu}}</ref>
In intracellular chemistry, sulfur operates as a carrier of reducing hydrogen and its electrons for cellular repair of oxidation. Reduced ], a sulfur-containing tripeptide, is a reducing agent through its sulfhydryl (–SH) moiety derived from ].

], the route to most of the world's methane, is a multistep biochemical transformation of ]. This conversion requires several organosulfur cofactors. These include ], {{chem2|CH3SCH2CH2SO3-}}, the immediate precursor to ].<ref>{{cite journal|last1= Thauer|first1= R. K.|title= Biochemistry of methanogenesis: a tribute to Marjory Stephenson:1998 Marjory Stephenson Prize Lecture|journal= Microbiology|volume= 144|issue= 9|pages= 2377–2406|date= 1998|pmid= 9782487|doi= 10.1099/00221287-144-9-2377|doi-access= free}}</ref>

===Metalloproteins and inorganic cofactors===
Metalloproteins—in which the active site is a transition metal ion (or metal-sulfide cluster) often coordinated by sulfur atoms of cysteine residues<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pace |first1=Nicholas J. |last2=Weerapana |first2=Eranthie |date=2014-04-17 |title=Zinc-binding cysteines: diverse functions and structural motifs |journal=Biomolecules |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=419–434 |doi=10.3390/biom4020419 |issn=2218-273X |pmc=4101490 |pmid=24970223|doi-access=free }}</ref>—are essential components of enzymes involved in electron transfer processes. Examples include ] (Cu<sup>2+</sup>) and ] (Cu–S). The function of these enzymes is dependent on the fact that the transition metal ion can undergo ]s. Other examples include many zinc proteins,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Giles |first1=Niroshini M |last2=Watts |first2=Aaron B |last3=Giles |first3=Gregory I |last4=Fry |first4=Fiona H |last5=Littlechild |first5=Jennifer A |last6=Jacob |first6=Claus |date=2003-08-01 |title=Metal and Redox Modulation of Cysteine Protein Function |journal=Chemistry & Biology |language=en |volume=10 |issue=8 |pages=677–693 |doi=10.1016/S1074-5521(03)00174-1 |pmid=12954327 |issn=1074-5521|doi-access=free }}</ref> as well as ]s. Most pervasive are the ]s, which serve as electron shuttles in cells. In bacteria, the important ] enzymes contain an Fe–Mo–S cluster and is a ] that performs the important function of ], converting atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia that can be used by microorganisms and plants to make proteins, DNA, RNA, alkaloids, and the other organic nitrogen compounds necessary for life.<ref>{{cite book|isbn= 978-0-935702-73-6 |first1= S. J.|last1= Lippard|first2= J. M.|last2= Berg|title= Principles of Bioinorganic Chemistry|publisher= University Science Books|date= 1994}}</ref>

Sulfur is also present in ].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schwarz |first1=Günter |last2=Mendel |first2=Ralf R. |date=2006 |title=Molybdenum cofactor biosynthesis and molybdenum enzymes |journal=Annual Review of Plant Biology |language=en |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=623–647 |doi=10.1146/annurev.arplant.57.032905.105437 |pmid=16669776 |issn=1543-5008}}</ref>
:]

===Sulfate===
{{Main|Sulfation#Sulfation in biology}}

===Deficiency===
In humans ] is an ]; ] is conditionally essential and may be synthesized from non-essential ] (sulfur donor would be methionine in this case). Dietary deficiency rarely happens in common conditions. Artificial methionine deficiency is attempted to apply in cancer treatment,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mladenović |first1=Dušan |last2=Radosavljević |first2=Tatjana |last3=Hrnčić |first3=Dragan |last4=Rasic-Markovic |first4=Aleksandra |last5=Stanojlović |first5=Olivera |date=2019-07-26 |title=The effects of dietary methionine restriction on the function and metabolic reprogramming in the liver and brain – implications for longevity |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30817309/ |journal=Reviews in the Neurosciences |volume=30 |issue=6 |pages=581–593 |doi=10.1515/revneuro-2018-0073 |issn=2191-0200 |pmid=30817309|s2cid=73470156 }}</ref> but the method is still potentially dangerous.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Binz |first1=Regina L. |last2=Sadhukhan |first2=Ratan |last3=Miousse |first3=Isabelle R. |last4=Garg |first4=Sarita |last5=Koturbash |first5=Igor |last6=Zhou |first6=Daohong |last7=Hauer-Jensen |first7=Martin |last8=Pathak |first8=Rupak |date=2021-02-27 |title=Dietary Methionine Deficiency Enhances Genetic Instability in Murine Immune Cells |journal=International Journal of Molecular Sciences |volume=22 |issue=5 |pages=2378 |doi=10.3390/ijms22052378 |issn=1422-0067 |pmc=7956689 |pmid=33673497|doi-access=free }}</ref>

] is a rare, fatal genetic disease preventing production of ], needed to metabolize sulfites to sulfates.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Karakas |first1=Erkan |last2=Kisker |first2=Caroline |date=2005-10-18 |title=Structural analysis of missense mutations causing isolated sulfite oxidase deficiency |url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2005/dt/b505789m |journal=Dalton Transactions |language=en |issue=21 |pages=3459–3463 |doi=10.1039/B505789M |pmid=16234925 |issn=1477-9234}}</ref>

==Precautions==
{{Chembox
| container_only = yes
| Section7= {{Chembox Hazards
| ExternalSDS=
| GHSPictograms= {{GHS07}} {{GHS02}}
| GHSSignalWord= Warning
| HPhrases= {{H-phrases|315}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/product/sigald/84683|title=Sulfur 84683|website=S}}</ref>
| NFPA-H= 2
| NFPA-F= 1
| NFPA-R= 0
| NFPA-S=
| NFPA_ref= <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cameochemicals.noaa.gov/chemical/4562|title=Chemical Datasheet. SULFUR, MOLTEN}}</ref>
}}
}}
]
Though elemental sulfur is only minimally absorbed through the skin and is of low toxicity to humans, inhalation of sulfur dust or contact with eyes or skin may cause irritation. Excessive ingestion of sulfur can cause a burning sensation or diarrhea,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sulfur General Fact Sheet |url=http://npic.orst.edu/factsheets/sulfurgen.html |access-date=2022-09-02 |website=npic.orst.edu}}</ref> and cases of life-threatening metabolic acidosis have been reported after patients deliberately consumed sulfur as a folk remedy.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schwartz |first1=Steven M. |last2=Carroll |first2=Hugh M. |last3=Scharschmidt |first3=Linda A. |date=1986-07-01 |title=Sublimed (Inorganic) Sulfur Ingestion: A Cause of Life-Threatening Metabolic Acidosis With a High Anion Gap |url=https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.1986.00360190229034 |journal=Archives of Internal Medicine |volume=146 |issue=7 |pages=1437–1438 |doi=10.1001/archinte.1986.00360190229034 |pmid=3718141 |issn=0003-9926}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Blum |first1=J. Eric |last2=Coe |first2=Fredric L. |date=2010-01-13 |title=Metabolic Acidosis after Sulfur Ingestion |journal=New England Journal of Medicine |url=https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJM197710202971606 |access-date=2022-09-02 |volume=297 |issue=16 |pages=869–870 |language=EN |doi=10.1056/nejm197710202971606|pmid=904661 }}</ref>

===Toxicity of sulfur compounds===
When sulfur burns in air, it produces ]. In water, this gas produces sulfurous acid and sulfites; sulfites are antioxidants that inhibit growth of aerobic bacteria and a useful ] in small amounts. At high concentrations these acids harm the ], ], or other ].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sulfur Dioxide {{!}} Toxicological Profile {{!}} ATSDR |url=https://wwwn.cdc.gov/TSP/ToxProfiles/ToxProfiles.aspx?id=253&tid=46 |date= March 26, 2014 |access-date=2023-10-24 |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention }}</ref> In organisms without lungs such as insects, sulfite in high concentration prevents ].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sulfur General Fact Sheet |url=http://npic.orst.edu/factsheets/sulfurgen.html#:~:text=However,%20the%20main%20theory%20is,cells%20and%20affects%20cell%20respiration.&text=Sulfur%20can%20kill%20insects%20if%20they%20touch%20it%20or%20eat%20it.&text=It%20disrupts%20their%20normal%20body,their%20ability%20to%20produce%20energy. |access-date=2024-01-20 |website=npic.orst.edu}}</ref>

] (made by catalysis from sulfur dioxide) and ] are similarly highly acidic and corrosive in the presence of water. Concentrated sulfuric acid is a strong dehydrating agent that can strip available water molecules and water components from sugar and organic tissue.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Baker |first=Colin |date=1 March 2007 |title=The dehydration of sucrose |url=https://edu.rsc.org/exhibition-chemistry/the-dehydration-of-sucrose/2020073.article |magazine=] |publisher=] |access-date=14 June 2018}}</ref>

The burning of ] and/or ] by industry and ] generates sulfur dioxide (SO<sub>2</sub>) that reacts with atmospheric water and oxygen to produce ] (H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>3</sub>).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-02-28 |title=4.1: Fossil Fuels and Products of Combustion |url=https://eng.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Environmental_Engineering_(Sustainability_and_Conservation)/Energy_Conservation_for_Environmental_Protection_(Pisupati)/04%3A_Energy_and_the_Environment/4.01%3A_New_Page |access-date=2023-10-24 |website=Engineering LibreTexts |language=en}}</ref> These acids are components of ], lowering the ] of ] and freshwater bodies, sometimes resulting in substantial damage to the ] and ] of statues and structures. Fuel standards increasingly require that fuel producers extract sulfur from ]s to prevent acid rain formation. This extracted and refined sulfur represents a large portion of sulfur production. In coal-fired power plants, ]es are sometimes purified. More modern power plants that use ] extract the sulfur before they burn the gas.

] is about one-half as ] as ], and intoxicates by the same mechanism (inhibition of the respiratory enzyme ]),<ref>{{Cite journal|journal=Medscape|url=https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/815139-overview#a4|title=Hydrogen Sulfide Toxicity: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology|date=30 March 2017|via=eMedicine}}</ref> though hydrogen sulfide is less likely to cause sudden poisonings from small inhaled amounts (near its ] (PEL) of 20&nbsp;ppm) because of its disagreeable odor.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Summers |first=Vincent |date=2017-04-08 |title=Hydrogen Sulfide or Hydrogen Cyanide: Which is More Dangerous? |url=https://www.quirkyscience.com/hydrogen-sulfide-or-hydrogen-cyanide/ |access-date=2022-08-23 |website=Quirky Science |language=en-US}}</ref> However, its presence in ambient air at concentration over 100–150&nbsp;ppm quickly deadens the sense of smell,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hydrogen Sulfide – Hazards {{!}} Occupational Safety and Health Administration |url=https://www.osha.gov/hydrogen-sulfide/hazards |access-date=2022-08-23 |website=www.osha.gov}}</ref> and a victim may breathe increasing quantities without noticing until severe symptoms cause death. Dissolved ] and ] salts are toxic by the same mechanism.

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Chemistry}}
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==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{wikiquote}}
{{cite book |editor1-last=Sigel |editor1-first=Astrid |editor2-last=Freisinger |editor2-first=Eva |editor3-last=Sigel |editor3-first=Roland K.O. |title=Transition Metals and Sulfur: A Strong Relationship for Life |date=2020 |publisher=de Gruyter |location=Berlin/Boston |isbn=978-3-11-058889-7 |pages=xlv+455|others=Guest Editors Martha E Sosa Torres and Peter M.H.Kroneck}}

==External links==
* at '']'' (University of Nottingham)
*, ] Physical Measurement Laboratory
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100223201329/http://library.tedankara.k12.tr/chemistry/vol2/allotropy/z129.htm |date=23 February 2010 }}, Introduction to Chemistry for Ages 13–17
*
*
*
*

{{Periodic table (navbox)}}
{{Sulfur compounds}}
{{Subject bar |book1=Sulfur |book2=Period 3 elements |book3=Chalcogens |book4=Chemical elements (sorted&nbsp;alphabetically) |book5=Chemical elements (sorted by number) |portal=Chemistry |commons=y |wikt=y |wikt-search=sulfur |v=y |v-search=Sulfur atom |b=y |b-search=Wikijunior:The Elements/Sulfur}}
{{Authority control}}

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Revision as of 23:58, 25 November 2024

A Extraction style roguelike game

The FitnessGram™ Pacer Test is a multistage aerobic capacity test that progressively gets more difficult as it continues. The 20 meter pacer test will begin in 30 seconds. Line up at the start. The running speed starts slowly, but gets faster each minute after you hear this signal. A single lap should be completed each time you hear this sound. Remember to run in a straight line, and run as long as possible. The second time you fail to complete a lap before the sound, your test is over. The test will begin on the word start. On your mark, get ready, start.

Feel it One Two Three Four Five Six Seven; end of level one

Eight Feel it Nine Ten Eleven Twelve Thirteen Fourteen Fifteen; end of level two High rollers Sixteen High rollers Seventeen High rollers Eighteen Nineteen Twenty Twenty-one High rollers Twenty-two High rollers Twenty-three; end of level three

High rollers Twenty-four Twenty-five Twenty-six Twenty-seven High rollers Twenty-eight Twenty-nine High rollers Thirty High rollers Thirty-one Thirty-two; end of level four Thirty-three Thirty-four Thirty-five Thirty-six Thirty-seven Thirty-eight Thirty-nine Forty Forty-one; end of level five

Forty-two Forty-three Forty-four Forty-five Forty-six Forty-seven Forty-eight Forty-nine Fifty Fifty-one; end of level six

Fifty-two Fifty-three Fifty-four Fifty-five Fifty-six Fifty-seven Fifty-eight Fifty-nine Sixty Sixty-one; end of level seven Sixty-two Sixty-three Sixty-four Sixty-five Sixty-six Sixty-seven Sixty-eight Sixty-nine Seventy Seventy-one Seventy-two; end of level eight

Seventy-three Seventy-four Seventy-five Seventy-six Seventy-seven Seventy-eight Seventy-nine Eighty Eighty-one Eighty-two Eighty-three; end of level nine

Eighty-four Eighty-five Eighty-six Eighty-seven Eighty-eight Eighty-nine Ninety Ninety-one Ninety-two Ninety-three Ninety-four; end of level ten

Ninety-five Ninety-six Ninety-seven Ninety-eight Ninety-nine One hundred One hundred one One hundred two One hundred three One hundred four One hundred five One hundred six; end of level eleven

One hundred seven One hundred eight One hundred nine One hundred ten One hundred eleven One hundred twelve One hundred thirteen One hundred fourteen One hundred fifteen One hundred sixteen One hundred seventeen One hundred eighteen; end of level twelve

One hundred nineteen One hundred twenty One hundred twenty-one One hundred twenty-two One hundred twenty-three One hundred twenty-four One hundred twenty-five One hundred twenty-six One hundred twenty-seven One hundred twenty-eight One hundred twenty-nine One hundred thirty One hundred thirty-one; end of level thirteen

One hundred thirty-two One hundred thirty-three One hundred thirty-four One hundred thirty-five One hundred thirty-six One hundred thirty-seven One hundred thirty-eight One hundred thirty-nine One hundred forty One hundred forty-one One hundred forty-two One hundred forty-three One hundred forty-four; end of level fourteen

One hundred forty-five One hundred forty-six One hundred forty-seven One hundred forty-eight One hundred forty-nine One hundred fifty One hundred fifty-one One hundred fifty-two One hundred fifty-three One hundred fifty-four One hundred fifty-five One hundred fifty-six One hundred fifty-seven; end of level fifteen

One hundred fifty-eight One hundred fifty-nine One hundred sixty One hundred sixty-one One hundred sixty-two One hundred sixty-three One hundred sixty-four One hundred sixty-five One hundred sixty-six One hundred sixty-seven One hundred sixty-eight One hundred sixty-nine One hundred seventy One hundred seventy-one; end of level sixteen

One hundred seventy-two One hundred seventy-three One hundred seventy-four One hundred seventy-five One hundred seventy-six One hundred seventy-seven One hundred seventy-eight One hundred seventy-nine One hundred eighty One hundred eighty-one One hundred eighty-two One hundred eighty-three One hundred eighty-four One hundred eighty-five; end of level seventeen

One hundred eighty-six One hundred eighty-seven One hundred eighty-eight One hundred eighty-nine One hundred ninety One hundred ninety-one One hundred ninety-two One hundred ninety-three One hundred ninety-four One hundred ninety-five One hundred ninety-six One hundred ninety-seven One hundred ninety-eight One hundred ninety-nine Two hundred; end of level eighteen

Two hundred one Two hundred two Two hundred three Two hundred four Two hundred five Two hundred six Two hundred seven Two hundred eight Two hundred nine Two hundred ten Two hundred eleven Two hundred twelve Two hundred thirteen Two hundred fourteen Two hundred fifteen; end of level nineteen

Two hundred sixteen Two hundred seventeen Two hundred eighteen Two hundred nineteen Two hundred twenty Two hundred twenty-one Two hundred twenty-two Two hundred twenty-three Two hundred twenty-four Two hundred twenty-five Two hundred twenty-six Two hundred twenty-seven Two hundred twenty-eight Two hundred twenty-nine Two hundred thirty Two hundred thirty-one; end of level twenty

Two hundred thirty-two Two hundred thirty-three Two hundred thirty-four Two hundred thirty-five Two hundred thirty-six Two hundred thirty-nine Two hundred forty Two hundred forty-one Two hundred forty-two Two hundred forty-three Two hundred forty-four Two hundred forty-five Two hundred forty-six Two hundred forty-seven; end of level twenty-one, end of test

The FitnessGram™ Pacer Test is a multistage aerobic capacity test that progressively gets more difficult as it continues. The 20 meter pacer test will begin in 30 seconds. Line up at the start. The running speed starts slowly, but gets faster each minute after you hear this signal. A single lap should be completed each time you hear this sound. Remember to run in a straight line, and run as long as possible. The second time you fail to complete a lap before the sound, your test is over. The test will begin on the word start. On your mark, get ready, start.

Feel it One Two Three Four Five Six Seven; end of level one

Eight Feel it Nine Ten Eleven Twelve Thirteen Fourteen Fifteen; end of level two High rollers Sixteen High rollers Seventeen High rollers Eighteen Nineteen Twenty Twenty-one High rollers Twenty-two High rollers Twenty-three; end of level three

High rollers Twenty-four Twenty-five Twenty-six Twenty-seven High rollers Twenty-eight Twenty-nine High rollers Thirty High rollers Thirty-one Thirty-two; end of level four Thirty-three Thirty-four Thirty-five Thirty-six Thirty-seven Thirty-eight Thirty-nine Forty Forty-one; end of level five

Forty-two Forty-three Forty-four Forty-five Forty-six Forty-seven Forty-eight Forty-nine Fifty Fifty-one; end of level six

Fifty-two Fifty-three Fifty-four Fifty-five Fifty-six Fifty-seven Fifty-eight Fifty-nine Sixty Sixty-one; end of level seven Sixty-two Sixty-three Sixty-four Sixty-five Sixty-six Sixty-seven Sixty-eight Sixty-nine Seventy Seventy-one Seventy-two; end of level eight

Seventy-three Seventy-four Seventy-five Seventy-six Seventy-seven Seventy-eight Seventy-nine Eighty Eighty-one Eighty-two Eighty-three; end of level nine

Eighty-four Eighty-five Eighty-six Eighty-seven Eighty-eight Eighty-nine Ninety Ninety-one Ninety-two Ninety-three Ninety-four; end of level ten

Ninety-five Ninety-six Ninety-seven Ninety-eight Ninety-nine One hundred One hundred one One hundred two One hundred three One hundred four One hundred five One hundred six; end of level eleven

One hundred seven One hundred eight One hundred nine One hundred ten One hundred eleven One hundred twelve One hundred thirteen One hundred fourteen One hundred fifteen One hundred sixteen One hundred seventeen One hundred eighteen; end of level twelve

One hundred nineteen One hundred twenty One hundred twenty-one One hundred twenty-two One hundred twenty-three One hundred twenty-four One hundred twenty-five One hundred twenty-six One hundred twenty-seven One hundred twenty-eight One hundred twenty-nine One hundred thirty One hundred thirty-one; end of level thirteen

One hundred thirty-two One hundred thirty-three One hundred thirty-four One hundred thirty-five One hundred thirty-six One hundred thirty-seven One hundred thirty-eight One hundred thirty-nine One hundred forty One hundred forty-one One hundred forty-two One hundred forty-three One hundred forty-four; end of level fourteen

One hundred forty-five One hundred forty-six One hundred forty-seven One hundred forty-eight One hundred forty-nine One hundred fifty One hundred fifty-one One hundred fifty-two One hundred fifty-three One hundred fifty-four One hundred fifty-five One hundred fifty-six One hundred fifty-seven; end of level fifteen

One hundred fifty-eight One hundred fifty-nine One hundred sixty One hundred sixty-one One hundred sixty-two One hundred sixty-three One hundred sixty-four One hundred sixty-five One hundred sixty-six One hundred sixty-seven One hundred sixty-eight One hundred sixty-nine One hundred seventy One hundred seventy-one; end of level sixteen

One hundred seventy-two One hundred seventy-three One hundred seventy-four One hundred seventy-five One hundred seventy-six One hundred seventy-seven One hundred seventy-eight One hundred seventy-nine One hundred eighty One hundred eighty-one One hundred eighty-two One hundred eighty-three One hundred eighty-four One hundred eighty-five; end of level seventeen

One hundred eighty-six One hundred eighty-seven One hundred eighty-eight One hundred eighty-nine One hundred ninety One hundred ninety-one One hundred ninety-two One hundred ninety-three One hundred ninety-four One hundred ninety-five One hundred ninety-six One hundred ninety-seven One hundred ninety-eight One hundred ninety-nine Two hundred; end of level eighteen

Two hundred one Two hundred two Two hundred three Two hundred four Two hundred five Two hundred six Two hundred seven Two hundred eight Two hundred nine Two hundred ten Two hundred eleven Two hundred twelve Two hundred thirteen Two hundred fourteen Two hundred fifteen; end of level nineteen

Two hundred sixteen Two hundred seventeen Two hundred eighteen Two hundred nineteen Two hundred twenty Two hundred twenty-one Two hundred twenty-two Two hundred twenty-three Two hundred twenty-four Two hundred twenty-five Two hundred twenty-six Two hundred twenty-seven Two hundred twenty-eight Two hundred twenty-nine Two hundred thirty Two hundred thirty-one; end of level twenty

Two hundred thirty-two Two hundred thirty-three Two hundred thirty-four Two hundred thirty-five Two hundred thirty-six Two hundred thirty-nine Two hundred forty Two hundred forty-one Two hundred forty-two Two hundred forty-three Two hundred forty-four Two hundred forty-five Two hundred forty-six Two hundred forty-seven; end of level twenty-one, end of test


The FitnessGram™ Pacer Test is a multistage aerobic capacity test that progressively gets more difficult as it continues. The 20 meter pacer test will begin in 30 seconds. Line up at the start. The running speed starts slowly, but gets faster each minute after you hear this signal. A single lap should be completed each time you hear this sound. Remember to run in a straight line, and run as long as possible. The second time you fail to complete a lap before the sound, your test is over. The test will begin on the word start. On your mark, get ready, start.

Feel it One Two Three Four Five Six Seven; end of level one

Eight Feel it Nine Ten Eleven Twelve Thirteen Fourteen Fifteen; end of level two High rollers Sixteen High rollers Seventeen High rollers Eighteen Nineteen Twenty Twenty-one High rollers Twenty-two High rollers Twenty-three; end of level three

High rollers Twenty-four Twenty-five Twenty-six Twenty-seven High rollers Twenty-eight Twenty-nine High rollers Thirty High rollers Thirty-one Thirty-two; end of level four Thirty-three Thirty-four Thirty-five Thirty-six Thirty-seven Thirty-eight Thirty-nine Forty Forty-one; end of level five

Forty-two Forty-three Forty-four Forty-five Forty-six Forty-seven Forty-eight Forty-nine Fifty Fifty-one; end of level six

Fifty-two Fifty-three Fifty-four Fifty-five Fifty-six Fifty-seven Fifty-eight Fifty-nine Sixty Sixty-one; end of level seven Sixty-two Sixty-three Sixty-four Sixty-five Sixty-six Sixty-seven Sixty-eight Sixty-nine Seventy Seventy-one Seventy-two; end of level eight

Seventy-three Seventy-four Seventy-five Seventy-six Seventy-seven Seventy-eight Seventy-nine Eighty Eighty-one Eighty-two Eighty-three; end of level nine

Eighty-four Eighty-five Eighty-six Eighty-seven Eighty-eight Eighty-nine Ninety Ninety-one Ninety-two Ninety-three Ninety-four; end of level ten

Ninety-five Ninety-six Ninety-seven Ninety-eight Ninety-nine One hundred One hundred one One hundred two One hundred three One hundred four One hundred five One hundred six; end of level eleven

One hundred seven One hundred eight One hundred nine One hundred ten One hundred eleven One hundred twelve One hundred thirteen One hundred fourteen One hundred fifteen One hundred sixteen One hundred seventeen One hundred eighteen; end of level twelve

One hundred nineteen One hundred twenty One hundred twenty-one One hundred twenty-two One hundred twenty-three One hundred twenty-four One hundred twenty-five One hundred twenty-six One hundred twenty-seven One hundred twenty-eight One hundred twenty-nine One hundred thirty One hundred thirty-one; end of level thirteen

One hundred thirty-two One hundred thirty-three One hundred thirty-four One hundred thirty-five One hundred thirty-six One hundred thirty-seven One hundred thirty-eight One hundred thirty-nine One hundred forty One hundred forty-one One hundred forty-two One hundred forty-three One hundred forty-four; end of level fourteen

One hundred forty-five One hundred forty-six One hundred forty-seven One hundred forty-eight One hundred forty-nine One hundred fifty One hundred fifty-one One hundred fifty-two One hundred fifty-three One hundred fifty-four One hundred fifty-five One hundred fifty-six One hundred fifty-seven; end of level fifteen

One hundred fifty-eight One hundred fifty-nine One hundred sixty One hundred sixty-one One hundred sixty-two One hundred sixty-three One hundred sixty-four One hundred sixty-five One hundred sixty-six One hundred sixty-seven One hundred sixty-eight One hundred sixty-nine One hundred seventy One hundred seventy-one; end of level sixteen

One hundred seventy-two One hundred seventy-three One hundred seventy-four One hundred seventy-five One hundred seventy-six One hundred seventy-seven One hundred seventy-eight One hundred seventy-nine One hundred eighty One hundred eighty-one One hundred eighty-two One hundred eighty-three One hundred eighty-four One hundred eighty-five; end of level seventeen

One hundred eighty-six One hundred eighty-seven One hundred eighty-eight One hundred eighty-nine One hundred ninety One hundred ninety-one One hundred ninety-two One hundred ninety-three One hundred ninety-four One hundred ninety-five One hundred ninety-six One hundred ninety-seven One hundred ninety-eight One hundred ninety-nine Two hundred; end of level eighteen

Two hundred one Two hundred two Two hundred three Two hundred four Two hundred five Two hundred six Two hundred seven Two hundred eight Two hundred nine Two hundred ten Two hundred eleven Two hundred twelve Two hundred thirteen Two hundred fourteen Two hundred fifteen; end of level nineteen

Two hundred sixteen Two hundred seventeen Two hundred eighteen Two hundred nineteen Two hundred twenty Two hundred twenty-one Two hundred twenty-two Two hundred twenty-three Two hundred twenty-four Two hundred twenty-five Two hundred twenty-six Two hundred twenty-seven Two hundred twenty-eight Two hundred twenty-nine Two hundred thirty Two hundred thirty-one; end of level twenty

Two hundred thirty-two Two hundred thirty-three Two hundred thirty-four Two hundred thirty-five Two hundred thirty-six Two hundred thirty-nine Two hundred forty Two hundred forty-one Two hundred forty-two Two hundred forty-three Two hundred forty-four Two hundred forty-five Two hundred forty-six Two hundred forty-seven; end of level twenty-one, end of test


The FitnessGram™ Pacer Test is a multistage aerobic capacity test that progressively gets more difficult as it continues. The 20 meter pacer test will begin in 30 seconds. Line up at the start. The running speed starts slowly, but gets faster each minute after you hear this signal. A single lap should be completed each time you hear this sound. Remember to run in a straight line, and run as long as possible. The second time you fail to complete a lap before the sound, your test is over. The test will begin on the word start. On your mark, get ready, start.

Feel it One Two Three Four Five Six Seven; end of level one

Eight Feel it Nine Ten Eleven Twelve Thirteen Fourteen Fifteen; end of level two High rollers Sixteen High rollers Seventeen High rollers Eighteen Nineteen Twenty Twenty-one High rollers Twenty-two High rollers Twenty-three; end of level three

High rollers Twenty-four Twenty-five Twenty-six Twenty-seven High rollers Twenty-eight Twenty-nine High rollers Thirty High rollers Thirty-one Thirty-two; end of level four Thirty-three Thirty-four Thirty-five Thirty-six Thirty-seven Thirty-eight Thirty-nine Forty Forty-one; end of level five

Forty-two Forty-three Forty-four Forty-five Forty-six Forty-seven Forty-eight Forty-nine Fifty Fifty-one; end of level six

Fifty-two Fifty-three Fifty-four Fifty-five Fifty-six Fifty-seven Fifty-eight Fifty-nine Sixty Sixty-one; end of level seven Sixty-two Sixty-three Sixty-four Sixty-five Sixty-six Sixty-seven Sixty-eight Sixty-nine Seventy Seventy-one Seventy-two; end of level eight

Seventy-three Seventy-four Seventy-five Seventy-six Seventy-seven Seventy-eight Seventy-nine Eighty Eighty-one Eighty-two Eighty-three; end of level nine

Eighty-four Eighty-five Eighty-six Eighty-seven Eighty-eight Eighty-nine Ninety Ninety-one Ninety-two Ninety-three Ninety-four; end of level ten

Ninety-five Ninety-six Ninety-seven Ninety-eight Ninety-nine One hundred One hundred one One hundred two One hundred three One hundred four One hundred five One hundred six; end of level eleven

One hundred seven One hundred eight One hundred nine One hundred ten One hundred eleven One hundred twelve One hundred thirteen One hundred fourteen One hundred fifteen One hundred sixteen One hundred seventeen One hundred eighteen; end of level twelve

One hundred nineteen One hundred twenty One hundred twenty-one One hundred twenty-two One hundred twenty-three One hundred twenty-four One hundred twenty-five One hundred twenty-six One hundred twenty-seven One hundred twenty-eight One hundred twenty-nine One hundred thirty One hundred thirty-one; end of level thirteen

One hundred thirty-two One hundred thirty-three One hundred thirty-four One hundred thirty-five One hundred thirty-six One hundred thirty-seven One hundred thirty-eight One hundred thirty-nine One hundred forty One hundred forty-one One hundred forty-two One hundred forty-three One hundred forty-four; end of level fourteen

One hundred forty-five One hundred forty-six One hundred forty-seven One hundred forty-eight One hundred forty-nine One hundred fifty One hundred fifty-one One hundred fifty-two One hundred fifty-three One hundred fifty-four One hundred fifty-five One hundred fifty-six One hundred fifty-seven; end of level fifteen

One hundred fifty-eight One hundred fifty-nine One hundred sixty One hundred sixty-one One hundred sixty-two One hundred sixty-three One hundred sixty-four One hundred sixty-five One hundred sixty-six One hundred sixty-seven One hundred sixty-eight One hundred sixty-nine One hundred seventy One hundred seventy-one; end of level sixteen

One hundred seventy-two One hundred seventy-three One hundred seventy-four One hundred seventy-five One hundred seventy-six One hundred seventy-seven One hundred seventy-eight One hundred seventy-nine One hundred eighty One hundred eighty-one One hundred eighty-two One hundred eighty-three One hundred eighty-four One hundred eighty-five; end of level seventeen

One hundred eighty-six One hundred eighty-seven One hundred eighty-eight One hundred eighty-nine One hundred ninety One hundred ninety-one One hundred ninety-two One hundred ninety-three One hundred ninety-four One hundred ninety-five One hundred ninety-six One hundred ninety-seven One hundred ninety-eight One hundred ninety-nine Two hundred; end of level eighteen

Two hundred one Two hundred two Two hundred three Two hundred four Two hundred five Two hundred six Two hundred seven Two hundred eight Two hundred nine Two hundred ten Two hundred eleven Two hundred twelve Two hundred thirteen Two hundred fourteen Two hundred fifteen; end of level nineteen

Two hundred sixteen Two hundred seventeen Two hundred eighteen Two hundred nineteen Two hundred twenty Two hundred twenty-one Two hundred twenty-two Two hundred twenty-three Two hundred twenty-four Two hundred twenty-five Two hundred twenty-six Two hundred twenty-seven Two hundred twenty-eight Two hundred twenty-nine Two hundred thirty Two hundred thirty-one; end of level twenty

Two hundred thirty-two Two hundred thirty-three Two hundred thirty-four Two hundred thirty-five Two hundred thirty-six Two hundred thirty-nine Two hundred forty Two hundred forty-one Two hundred forty-two Two hundred forty-three Two hundred forty-four Two hundred forty-five Two hundred forty-six Two hundred forty-seven; end of level twenty-one, end of test

Sulfur: Difference between revisions Add topic