Misplaced Pages

Revision as of 22:15, 29 November 2024

Civilized drama 文明戏; 文明戲; wénmíng xì was a spoken-word form of Chinese drama that emerged in the late Qing Dynasty and remained popular through the early years of the Republic of China.

History

In the late 19th-century, the Qing Dynasty made a large push to modernize China, driven in part by failed military confrontations with Western and Japanese forces and in part by cultural intersections. This drive towards modernization included in theatre, where sung dramas with highly stylized acting such as the Peking and Cantonese operas were prominent. Student troupes experimented with mixing sung theatre with spoken-word performances, while other groups developed a style of performance ("new fashion plays", 时装新戏; 時裝新戲) wherein modern costumes were used in traditional performances. Further influence came from shinpa through students studying in Japan.

Blending these various influences, a new genre emerged. In the vein of other efforts to modernize China, the new form of theatre was termed "civilized" (文明). This term carried connotations of progress and progressiveness. The genre gained particular popularity in Shanghai, which as a major trading port had experienced significant cross-cultural interactions. New drama troupes were established regularly beginning in the late 1900s, and with the 1911 revolution the genre found fertile ground in the anti-Qing circles.

Following the success of the revolution and the establishment of the Republic of China, audience interest in politically charged performances waned. In 1914, after playwrights such as Zheng Zhengqiu introduced new themes, the genre saw a resurgence. Dramas during this period became highly commercialized, with the major troupes (such as the Spring Willow Society) all centred in Shanghai. The genre peaked around 1917, with shows continuing until 1924.

Style

As a genre, civilized drama represented a hybrid form that blended traditional and Western modes of performance. These works were generally performed based on general outlines and included extensive improvisation. Nevertheless, some stories were performed using comprehensive scripts, while other scripts were written – sometimes in classical Chinese – with the sole intent of publication for readers. Thematically, many early stories were politically charged. Following the 1911 revolution, as tastes shifted, topics such as family, marriage, and contemporary social issues were more prominent. After Japan made its Twenty-One Demands in 1915, nationalist themes experienced a resurgence.

Stories could be original compositions, or translated from foreign works. These works were not always adapted directly; for instance, Bao Tianxiao and Xu Banmei staged an adaptation of Victor Hugo's Angelo, Tyrant of Padua (1835) via an extant Japanese adaptation by Satō Karoku [ja], while Zheng Zhengqiu used Charles and Mary Lamb's Tales from Shakespeare (1807) as the basis for adapting William Shakespeare's Merchant of Venice, Romeo and Juliet, The Taming of the Shrew, and Othello. Some performances drew from contemporary news stories, with one being based on the 1920 murder of Wang Lianying.

During scene changes, troupes would stage smaller performances in front of the curtain. Contemporary audiences were accustomed to performances with no interruptions, and this enabled scenes to be changed while still maintaining audience interest. Other elements of traditional opera performances, such as the use of gongs, were noted in early civilized plays.

For the earliest performances, all actors were men, who portrayed both male and female characters. Later, some female performers began to appear on stage. For characters, existing archetypes continued. The genre also included a new character archetype, the "civilized principal male", who would deliver speeches promoting democracy and a Westernized form of civilization. Performances emphasized exaggerated motions, with which actors perceived themselves as better able to influence audiences.

Impact

Civilized drama is regarded as a precursor of huaju, a genre of spoken drama that gained popularity amongst amateur troupes in the 1920s. Stemming from the New Culture Movement, as well as realism taught by Hendrik Ibsen, huaju was mostly marked by a focus on dialogue and social themes. However, some groups – such as the national theater movement under Yu Shangyuan – sought to maintain hybridity in stage performances. Hybrid forms continued into the 1950s, at which time they were known as "popular spoken dramas". Histories of Chinese theatre have generally neglected civilized drama, considering the genre little more than a transition.

Civilized dramas also contributed to the rise of Chinese cinema. The playwright Zheng Zhengqiu, who had directed numerous performances, was brought on by Zhang Shichuan to write the script for his A Difficult Couple (1913); the men would ultimately establish a film company, Mingxing, together and guide it into becoming "the largest and most influential film company in China". Other civilized drama performers and writers who entered the film industry included Guan Haifeng,

References

1. ^ Liu 2003b.
2. Zhong, Zhang & Zhang 1997, pp. 46–47.
3. ^ Zhong, Zhang & Zhang 1997, p. 47.
4. ^ Liu 2003a.
5. ^ Zhong, Zhang & Zhang 1997, p. 49.
6. ^ Zhong, Zhang & Zhang 1997, p. 50.
7. Liu 2007, p. 416.
8. Liu 2007, p. 421.
9. Liu 2007, p. 417.
10. Liu 2007, p. 422.
11. Zhong, Zhang & Zhang 1997, p. 54.
12. ^ Liu 2023, p. 234.
13. Zhong, Zhang & Zhang 1997, p. 52.
14. Liu 2023, p. 235.
15. Liu 2007, p. 412.
16. Zhong, Zhang & Zhang 1997, p. 48.
17. Zhong, Zhang & Zhang 1997, p. 56.
18. Zhong, Zhang & Zhang 1997, p. 55.

Works cited

• Liu, Siyuan (2003). "Huajü (Hua Chü)". In Kennedy, Dennis (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Theatre and Performance. doi:10.1093/acref/9780198601746.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-860174-6.
• Liu, Siyuan (2003). "Wenming Xi (Wen Ming Hsi)". In Kennedy, Dennis (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Theatre and Performance. doi:10.1093/acref/9780198601746.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-860174-6.
• Liu, Siyuan (2007). "Adaptation as Appropriation: Staging Western Drama in the First Western-Style Theatres in Japan and China". Theatre Journal. 59 (3): 411–429. doi:10.1353/tj.2007.0159. JSTOR 25070065.
• Liu, Siyuan (2023). "The "Deep Realism" of Style: From Michel Saint-Denis to Huang Zuolin". In Nakamura, Jessica; Saltzman-Li, Katherine (eds.). Realisms in East Asian Performance. University of Michigan Press. pp. 233–251. doi:10.3998/mpub.12254299. ISBN 978-0-472-07642-0. JSTOR 10.3998/mpub.12254299.18.
• Zhong, Dafeng; Zhang, Zhen; Zhang, Yingjin (1997). "From Wenmingxi (Civilized Play) to Yingxi (Shadowplay): The Foundation of Shanghai Film Industry in the 1920s". Asian Cinema. 9 (1): 46–64. doi:10.1386/ac.9.1.46_1.