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Police brutality is a term used to describe the excessive use of physical force, assault, verbal attacks, and threats by police officers and other law enforcement officers. The term may also be used to apply to such behavior when used by prison officers. Widespread, systematic police brutality exists in many countries, even those which prosecute it. Brutality is one of several forms of police misconduct which include false arrest, intimidation, racial profiling, political repression, surveillance abuse, sexual abuse, and police corruption.

History

Throughout history, efforts to police societies have been marred by brutality to some degree. In the ancient world, policing entities actively cultivated an atmosphere of terror, and abusive treatment was meted out in the quest for subjugation and control. For example, the New Testament records many incidents in which Roman guards inflicted unwarranted violence on members of the growing Christian minority.

In the English-speaking world, most modern police departments were first established in the nineteenth century, and in the early days cases of police brutality were frequent. In her book Street Justice: A History of Police Violence in New York City, researcher Marilynn S. Johnson describes "the routine bludgeoning of citizens by patrolmen armed with nightsticks or blackjacks.". Large-scale incidents of brutality were often associated with labor unrest, such as the Great Railroad Strike of 1877, the Pullman Strike of 1894, the Lawrence textile strike of 1912, the Ludlow massacre of 1914, the Steel strike of 1919, and the Hanapepe massacre of 1922.

In the 1960's, the African-American Civil Rights Movement had to overcome numerous incidents of police brutality in its struggle for justice and racial equality, notably during the Birmingham campaign of 1963-64 and during the Selma to Montgomery marches of 1965. Media coverage of the brutality sparked national outrage, and public sympathy for the movement grew rapidly as a result.

In the United States, race and police brutality continued to be closely linked, and the phenomenon sparked a string of race riots over the years. Especially notable among these incidents was the uprising caused by the arrest and beating of Rodney King on March 3, 1991 by officers of the Los Angeles Police Department. The atmosphere was particularly volatile because the brutality had been videotaped by a bystander and widely broadcast afterwards. When the four law enforcement officers charged with assault and other charges were acquitted, the 1992 Los Angeles Riots broke out.

During the Vietnam War, anti-war demonstrations were sometimes quelled through the use of billy-clubs and CS gas, commonly known as tear gas. The most notorious of these assaults took place during the August 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago. The actions of the police were later described as a "police riot" in the Walker Report to the US National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence.

In recent years, police brutality has often flared at global summits where protesters have sought to challenge the legitimacy of various institutions of economic globalization such as the WTO, the World Bank, the IMF, the G8, and international trade regimes such as the NAFTA and the FTAA. Crowd control efforts at these events are often characterized by the use of "less-than-lethal" means of force, such as CS gas, Plastic bullets, Tasers, and police dogs.

Incidence

Most police brutality goes unreported. In 1982, the federal government funded a "Police Services Study" in which over 12,000 randomly selected citizens were interviewed in three metropolitan areas. The study found that 13 percent of those surveyed had been victims of police brutality the previous year. Yet only 30 percent of those who acknowledged such brutality filed formal complaints. A 1998 Human Rights Watch report stated that in all 14 precincts which it examined, the process of filing a complaint was "unnecessarily difficult and often intimidating."

Police brutality is often associated with the phenomenon of racial profiling. Differences in race, religion, politics, and socioeconomic status between police and the citizenry can contribute to the creation of a relationship in which some police officers may view the population (or a particular subset thereof) as generally deserving punishment while these portions of the population view the police as oppressors. In addition, there is a perception that victims of police brutality often belong to relatively powerless groups, such as minorities, the young, and the poor.

Recent Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch reports confirm that prison guard brutality is especially rife within the U.S. A 2006 Human Rights Watch watch report entitled "Cruel and Degrading: The Use of Dogs for Cell Extractions in U.S. Prisons" revealed that five state prison systems permit the use of aggressive, unmuzzled dogs to terrify and even attack prisoners as part of cell removal procedures.

The Amnesty International 2007 report on human rights also documents widespread police misconduct in many other countries.

Causes

In dealing largely with disorderly elements of the society, some people working in law enforcement may gradually develop an attitude or sense of authority over society, particularly under traditional reaction-based policing models; in some cases the police believe that they are above the law.

Some members of the public may in fact perceive the use of force by police as excessive, even when the force used is not only reasonable, but is also appropriate under the circumstances. Police use of force is kept in check in many jurisdictions by the issuance of a use of force continuum. A use of force continuum sets levels of force considered appropriate in direct response to a subject's behavior. This power is granted by the civil government, with limits set out in statutory law as well as common law.

Investigation

In the United States, cases of police brutality are investigated by internal police commissions (such as the Christopher Commission of the Los Angeles Police Department), district attorneys (DAs) and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). Internal police commissions are often criticized for bias to the officers as they frequently declare upon review that the officer(s) acted within the department's rules, or according to their training. Additionally, the ability of district attorneys to investigate police brutality is called into question, as DAs depend on help from Police Departments to bring cases to trial. In contrast, the FBI is believed by many to be objective in its work in this area, but it investigates only a fraction of suspect cases of police brutality.

In the United Kingdom, an independent organization known as the Independent Police Complaints Commission investigates reports of police misconduct. They automatically investigate any deaths caused by, or thought to be caused by, police action.

Community response and prevention

Various community groups have criticized police brutality. These groups often stress the need for oversight by independent citizen review boards and other methods of ensuring accountability for police action.

Copwatch is a U.S.-based network of organizations that actively monitors and videotapes the police to prevent police brutality. Umbrella organizations and justice committees (often named after a deceased individual or those victimized by police violence) usually engage in a solidarity of those affected. Amnesty International is another organization active in the issue of police brutality.

Tools used by these groups include video recordings, which are sometimes broadcast using websites such as YouTube.

Self-described police monitoring organizations have themselves sometimes been the target of criticism. For example, some have interpreted the response of such groups to police shootings as calls to retaliate against the police, even when not explicitly stated as such.

Selected cases of police brutality

Pending cases/investgations

• Martin Anderson died in 2006 at a Florida juvenile detention facility after allegedly suffering a beating by as many as eight guards, recorded by videotape. An investigation is ongoing.
• Sean Bell died after police started shooting at his car outside of a strip club in New York City, hours before his wedding. New York Mayor Michael Bloomberg said that what the officers did was against NYPD policy. This case is under investigation.
• William Cardenas A video posted on YouTube shows two LAPD officers beating on 24 year old William Cardenas while arresting him on charges of receiving stolen property. The LAPD and FBI are currently investigating this case.

Notable cases

• Anthony Baez died in December 1994 after being arrested by NYPD Officer Francis X. Livoti.
• Steve Biko was allegedly killed by police as a result of anti-apartheid demonstrations in South Africa in 1977.
• Wayne Calvin Byrd II along with four other associates were beaten and arrested by the Los Angeles Police Department's CRASH unit in the Marina Del Rey community of West Los Angeles on August 25, 1995. Although attempts were made by the City of Los Angeles to settle, several Pacific Division LAPD officers, including Officer Ramirez, Officer Villalpando, Officer Damiano and Officer Williams were found guilty of various Civil Rights Violations, including false imprisonment. All charges against the four victims were eventually dropped.
• Robert Davis was filmed in an altercation with New Orleans police officers in October 2005. Two officers were later fired and charged with battery as a result of the incident.
• Amadou Diallo was shot and killed in February 1999 by New York City police officers while unarmed after the officers claimed they believed he was reaching for a gun. Four officers were indicted for second-degree murder but later acquitted.
• Johnny Gammage was a black motorist who died in a scuffle with white police officers. Three officers were charged with involuntary manslaughter, although at least one was acquitted.
• Frank Jude Jr. was beaten at a house party while unarmed by three off-duty Milwaukee Police officers, Andrew Spengler, Jon Bartlett and Daniel Masarik, who were charged but acquitted.
• Rodney King's March 3, 1991 arrest and beating by officers of the Los Angeles Police Department was videotaped by a bystander. Four law enforcement officers, including one sergeant, were charged locally with assault and other charges, of which they were acquitted, leading to the 1992 Los Angeles Riots. The officers were later charged in federal court of violating King's civil rights, and two of them were convicted.
• Abner Louima was sexually abused by New York City police officers in 1997. A number of officers were convicted in the case.
• Javier Ovando was shot and paralyzed by LAPD Officer Rafael Pérez and his partner Nino Durden. The two officers planted a gun on the unarmed gang member, and testified that Ovando shot first. The truth was not revealed until the Rampart investigation.
• Benno Ohnesorg, a German university student, was shot dead by police officer Karl-Heinz Kurras during a demonstration in Berlin on 2 June 1967. Kurras was charged with manslaughter but acquitted.
• Randy Weaver White separatist and survivalist whose home was assaulted by federal agents during the infamous Ruby Ridge incident. During the incident Weaver's wife was killed along with one of his sons, and Weaver and his Friend Kevin Harris were wounded.
• 62 protesters were hospitalized (including three comatose) after a brutal night-time raid on the Diaz school in Genoa where protesters were bedding down during the 27th G8 summit. In an ongoing trial (expected to conclude in 2008), twenty-eight Italian police officers are indicted for grievous bodily harm, planting evidence and wrongful arrest. A further 45 state officials, including police officers, prison guards and doctors, are charged with physically and mentally abusing demonstrators and journalists held in a detention centre in the nearby town of Bolzaneto.

See also

• Police misconduct
• Police riot
• Prisoner abuse
• State terrorism
• Christopher Commission
• Copwatch
• COINTELPRO
• Racism
• Police phobia

References

1. Johnson, Marilynn S. (2004). Johnson (ed.). Street Justice: A History of Police Violence in New York City. Beacon Press. p. 365. ISBN 0807050237.
2. Walker, Daniel (1968). Johnson (ed.). Rights in Conflict: The violent confrontation of demonstrators and police in the parks and streets of Chicago during the week of the Democratic National Convention of 1968. A report submitted by Daniel Walker, director of the Chicago Study Team, to the National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence. Braceland Brothers. p. 233.
3. "Fighting Police Abuse: A Community Action Manual". American Civil Liberties Union. 1997-12-1. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Text "accessdate - 2007-08-06" ignored (help)
4. "Shielded from Justice: Police Brutality and Accountability in the United States". Human Rights Watch. June, 1998. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Text "accessdate - 2007-08-08" ignored (help)
5. Powers, Mary D. (1995). "Civilian Oversight Is Necessary to Prevent Police Brutality". In Winters, Paul A. (ed.). Policing the Police. San Diego: Greenhaven Press. pp. 56–60. ISBN 1-56510-262-2.
6. "Cruel and Degrading: The Use of Dogs for Cell Extractions in U.S. Prisons". Human Rights Watch. 2006. {{cite web}}: Text "accessdate - 2007-08-08" ignored (help)
7. "Amnesty International Report 2007". Amnesty International. 2007. {{cite web}}: Text "accessdate - 2007-08-08" ignored (help)
8. Skolnick, Jerome H. (1995). "Community-Oriented Policing Would Prevent Police Brutality". In Winters, Paul A. (ed.). Policing the Police. San Diego: Greenhaven Press. pp. 45–55. ISBN 1-56510-262-2. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
9. Stetser, Merle (2001). The Use of Force in Police Control of Violence: Incidents Resulting in Assaults on Officers. New York: LFB Scholarly Publishing L.L.C. ISBN 1-931202-08-7.
10. Veiga, Alex (November 11, 2006). "YouTube.com prompts police beating probe". Associated Press. Retrieved 2006-11-12.
11. "Portland's crazed leftists / Arissa / Rose City Copwatch". Willamette Week Online. April 14. Retrieved 2006-10-08. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help)
12. "FDLE Investigates Death of Martin Lee Anderson". Florida Department of Law Enforcement. 2006-01-10. {{cite web}}: Text "accessdate - 2006-08-05" ignored (help)
13. "Mayor of New York calls police killing of bridegroom 'inexplicable'". Times Online. 2006-11-27. {{cite web}}: Text "accessdate - 2006-11-27" ignored (help)
14. "Video Arrest Subject Pleads No Contest". The Free Press. 2006-11-15. {{cite web}}: Text "accessdate - 2006-11-16" ignored (help)
15. "Stephen Bantu Biko". South African History Online. Retrieved 2006-08-05.
16. UCSB Student Body President Beaten by LAPD Officers
17. City of Los Angeles Public Records
18. Alistair Leithead (2005-10-10). "New Orleans policemen suspended". BBC News. Retrieved 2006-08-10.
19. "Officers acquitted of all charges in Diallo shooting". Courtroom Television Network (Court TV). 2000-02-25. Retrieved 2006-08-11.
20. "White officer acquitted in death of black motorist". CNN. 1996-11-13. Retrieved 2006-08-13.
21. Grinburg, Emanuella (2006-04-20). "Off-duty Milwaukee officers cleared in beating of unarmed man". Courtroom Television Network (Court TV). Retrieved 2006-08-14.
22. "Rodney King reluctant symbol of police brutality" (Press release). 2001-03-03. Retrieved 2006-11-22. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |http://en.wikipedia.org/search/?title= ignored (help)
23. "Louima Cop Sentenced". CBS Worldwide. 2000-06-27. Retrieved 2006-08-11.
24. PBS.org on the LAPD Scandal
25. Thomas, Nick (2003). Protest Movements in 1960s West Germany: A Social History of Dissent and Democracy. Oxford: Berg.
26. Seifert, Jurgen (1976). "Defining the Enemy of the State: Political Policies of West Germany". New German Critique. 8: 42–53. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
27. "Trial forces Italy to relive shocking police brutality". The Independent. 2005-10-12. {{cite web}}: Text "accessdate - 2007-08-05" ignored (help)

External links

• Amnesty International 2005 World Report
• News on police brutality and other police misconduct

• Articles with unsourced statements from January 2007
• Human rights abuses
• Law enforcement
• Alleged police brutality