| Revision as of 01:54, 15 August 2007 view sourcePersian Poet Gal (talk | contribs)37,390 editsm Reverted 1 edit by 203.189.4.108 identified as vandalism to last revision by Victor12. (TW)← Previous edit | Revision as of 02:22, 15 August 2007 view source 69.125.26.194 (talk) ←Replaced page with 'SHUT UP NO ONE CARES!'Next edit → | ||
| Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
| SHUT UP NO ONE CARES! | |||
| {{otheruses}} | |||
| <!-- PLEASE CONSIDER MAKING YOUR ADDITIONS TO THE PERU SUBPAGES. THIS ARTICLE IS MATURE. --> | |||
| <!-- PLEASE DO NOT ADD MASSIVE EXTERNAL LINKS, WIKIPEDIA IS NOT AN ADVERTISING SERVICE. --> | |||
| {{Infobox Country or territory | |||
| |native_name = ''República del Perú'' | |||
| |conventional_long_name = Republic of Peru | |||
| |common_name = Peru | |||
| |image_coat = Escudo nacional del Perú.svg | |||
| |image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg | |||
| |image_map = LocationPeru.svg | |||
| |national motto = | |||
| |national_anthem = '']''{{spaces|2}}<small>(])<br/>"We are free, may we always be so"</small> | |||
| |official_languages = ]<sup>1</sup> | |||
| |capital = ] | |||
| |latd=12 |latm=2.6 |latNS=S |longd=77 |longm=1.7 |longEW=W | |||
| |largest_city = capital | |||
| |government_type = ] | |||
| |leader_title1 = ] | |||
| |leader_name1 = ] | |||
| |leader_title2 = ] | |||
| |leader_name2 = ] | |||
| |sovereignty_type = ] | |||
| |sovereignty_note = from the ] | |||
| |established_event1 = Declared | |||
| |established_date1 = ] ] | |||
| |area_rank = 20th | |||
| |area_magnitude = 1 E12 | |||
| |area = 1,285,220 | |||
| |areami² = 496,222 <!--Do not remove per ]--> | |||
| |percent_water = 8.80 | |||
| |population_estimate = 28,674,757 <!--CIA World Factbook Estimate--> | |||
| |population_estimate_rank = 41st | |||
| |population_estimate_year = July 2007 | |||
| |population_census = 27,219,266 | |||
| |population_census_year = 2005 <!--(Peru 2005 Census)--> | |||
| |population_density = 22 | |||
| |population_densitymi² = 57 <!--Do not remove per ]--> | |||
| |population_density_rank = 183rd | |||
| |GDP_PPP = $170.089 billion <!--IMF 2005--> | |||
| |GDP_PPP_rank = 51st | |||
| |GDP_PPP_year = 2005 | |||
| |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $6,715 | |||
| |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 94th | |||
| |GDP_nominal = $93.268 billion <!--IMF 2006--> | |||
| |GDP_nominal_rank = 55th | |||
| |GDP_nominal_year = 2006 | |||
| |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $3,374 | |||
| |GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 87th | |||
| |HDI = {{increase}}0.767 | |||
| |HDI_rank = 82nd | |||
| |HDI_year = 2004 | |||
| |HDI_category = <font color="#ffcc00">medium</font> | |||
| |Gini = 54.6 | |||
| |Gini_year = 2002 | |||
| |Gini_category = <font color="#e0584e">high</font> | |||
| |currency = ] | |||
| |currency_code = PEN | |||
| |time_zone = PET | |||
| |utc_offset = -5 | |||
| |time_zone_DST = not observed | |||
| |utc_offset_DST = | |||
| |cctld = ] | |||
| |calling_code = 51 | |||
| |footnote1 = ], ] and other indigenous languages are co-official in the areas where they are predominant. | |||
| }} | |||
| '''Peru''' ({{lang-es|Perú}}, {{lang-qu|Piruw}}, {{lang-ay|Piruw}}), officially the '''Republic of Peru''' ({{Audio-es|República del Perú|Es - República del Perú.ogg}}, {{IPA2|re'pu.βli.ka del pe'ɾu}}), is a country in western ]. It is bordered on the north by Ecuador and Colombia, on the east by Brazil, on the southeast by Bolivia, on the south by Chile, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. | |||
| Peruvian territory was home to the ], one of the oldest in the world, and to the ], the largest state in ]. The ] conquered the country in the 16th century and established a ], which included most of its South American colonies. After achieving ] in 1821, Peru has undergone periods of political unrest and fiscal crisis as well as periods of stability and economic upswing. | |||
| Peru is a ] ] ] divided into ]. Its geography varies from the arid plains of the Pacific coast to the peaks of the ] mountains and the tropical forests of the ]. It is a ] with a medium ] score and a poverty level around 50%. Its main economic activities include agriculture, fishing, mining, and manufacturing of products such as textiles. | |||
| The Peruvian population, estimated at 28 million, is ], including ], ] and ]. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua and other ]. This mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music. | |||
| ==Etymology== | |||
| The word ''Peru'' is derived from ''Birú'', the name of a local ruler who lived near the ], ], in the early 16th century.<ref>Raúl Porras Barrenechea, ''El nombre del Perú'', p. 83.</ref> When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans.<ref>Raúl Porras Barrenechea, ''El nombre del Perú'', p. 84.</ref> Thus, when ] explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Peru.<ref>Raúl Porras Barrenechea, ''El nombre del Perú'', p. 86.</ref> The ] gave the name legal status with the 1529 '']'', which designated the newly encountered ] as the province of Peru.<ref>Raúl Porras Barrenechea, ''El nombre del Perú'', p. 87.</ref> Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination ], which became Republic of Peru after ]. | |||
| ==History== | |||
| {{main|History of Peru}} | |||
| The earliest evidence of human presence in Peruvian territory has been dated to approximately 11,000 years ].<ref>Tom Dillehay et al, "The first settlers", p. 20.</ref> The oldest known complex society in Peru, the ], flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3000 and 1800 BCE.<ref>Jonathan Haas et al, "Dating the Late Archaic occupation of the Norte Chico region in Peru", p. 1021.</ref> These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures such as ], ], ], ], ], and ]. In the 15th century, the ] emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in ].<ref>Terence D'Altroy, ''The Incas'', pp. 2–3.</ref> Andean societies were based on agriculture, using techniques such as ] and ]; ] husbandry and fishing were also important. Organization relied on ] and ] because these societies had no notion of ] or money.<ref>Enrique Mayer, ''The articulated peasant'', pp. 47–68.</ref> | |||
| ], the "Lost City of the Incas"]] | |||
| In 1532, a group of '']s'' led by ] ] Inca Emperor ] and established Spanish rule. Ten years later, the Spanish Crown established the ], which included most of its South American colonies.<ref>''Recopilación de leyes de los Reynos de las Indias'', vol. II, pp. 12–13.</ref> Viceroy ] reorganized the country in the 1570s with silver mining as its main economic activity and ] ] as its primary workforce.<ref>Peter Bakewell, ''Miners of the Red Mountain'', p. 181.</ref> Peruvian bullion provided revenue for the Spanish Crown and fueled a complex trade network that extended as far as Europe and the Philippines.<ref>Margarita Suárez, ''Desafíos transatlánticos'', pp. 252–253.</ref> However, by the 18th century, declining silver production and economic diversification greatly diminished royal income.<ref>Kenneth Andrien, ''Crisis and decline'', pp. 200–202.</ref> In response, the Crown enacted the ], a series of edicts that increased taxes and partitioned the Viceroyalty of Peru.<ref>Mark Burkholder, ''From impotence to authority'', pp. 83–87.</ref> The new laws provoked ]'s rebellion and other revolts, all of which were defeated.<ref>Scarlett O'Phelan, ''Rebellions and revolts in eighteenth century Peru and Upper Peru'', p. 276.</ref> | |||
| ] in 1821.]] | |||
| In the early 19th century, while most of South America was swept by ], Peru remained a royalist stronghold. As the elite hesitated between emancipation and loyalty to the Spanish Monarchy, ] was achieved only after the military campaigns of ] and ].<ref>Timothy Anna, ''The fall of the royal government in Peru'', pp. 237–238.</ref> During the early years of the Republic, endemic struggles for power between military leaders caused political instability.<ref>Charles Walker, ''Smoldering ashes'', pp. 124–125.</ref> National identity was forged during this period, as ] projects for a ] foundered and a ] proved ephemeral.<ref>Paul Gootenberg, ''Between silver and guano'', p. 12.</ref> Between the 1840s and 1860s, Peru enjoyed stability under the presidency of ] due to increased state revenues from ] exports.<ref>Paul Gootenberg, ''Imagining development'', pp. 5–6.</ref> However, by the 1870s, these resources had been squandered, the country was heavily indebted, and political in-fighting was again on the rise.<ref>Paul Gootenberg, ''Imagining development'', p. 9.</ref> | |||
| Peru was defeated by Chile in the 1879–1883 ], losing the provinces of ] and ] in the treaties of ] and ]. Internal struggles after the war were followed by a period of stability under the ], which lasted until the onset of the authoritarian regime of ].<ref>Ulrich Mücke, ''Political culture in nineteenth-century Peru'', pp. 193–194.</ref> The ] caused the downfall of Leguía, renewed political turmoil, and the emergence of the ] (APRA).<ref>Peter Klarén, ''Peru'', pp. 262–276.</ref> The rivalry between this organization and a coalition of the elite and the military defined Peruvian politics for the following three decades.<ref>David Palmer, ''Peru: the authoritarian tradition'', p. 93.</ref> | |||
| ], a decisive battle during the War of the Pacific.]] | |||
| In 1968, the Armed Forces, led by General ], staged a coup against president ]. The new regime undertook radical reforms aimed at fostering development but failed to gain widespread support.<ref>George Philip, ''The rise and fall of the Peruvian military radicals'', pp. 163–165.</ref> In 1975, Velasco was forcefully replaced as president by General ], who paralyzed reforms and oversaw the reestablishment of democracy.<ref>Daniel Schydlowsky and Juan Julio Wicht, "Anatomy of an economic failure", pp. 106–107.</ref> During the 1980s, Peru faced a considerable external debt, ever-growing inflation, a surge in drug trafficking, and ].<ref>Peter Klarén, ''Peru'', pp. 406–407.</ref> Under the presidency of ] (1990–2000), the country started to recover, however, accusations of authoritarianism, corruption, and human rights violations forced his resignation after the controversial ].<ref>BBC News, ''''. Retrieved on ], ].</ref> Since the end of the Fujimori regime, Peru has tried to fight corruption while sustaining economic growth; the current president is ].<ref>The Economist, ''''. Retrieved on ], ].</ref> | |||
| ==Government== | |||
| {{main|Government of Peru|Politics of Peru}} | |||
| ], official residence of the President.]] | |||
| Peru is a ] ] republic with a ]. Under the current constitution, the President is the ] and ]; he or she is elected for five years and may not immediately be re-elected.<ref>''Constitución Política del Perú'', Article Nº 112.</ref> The President designates the Prime Minister and, with his advice, the rest of the Council of Ministers.<ref>''Constitución Política del Perú'', Article Nº 122.</ref> There is a ] Congress with 120 members elected for a five-year term.<ref>''Constitución Política del Perú'', Article Nº 90.</ref> Bills may be proposed by either the executive or the legislative branch; they become law after being passed by Congress and promulgated by the President.<ref>''Constitución Política del Perú'', Articles Nº 107–108.</ref> The judiciary is nominally independent,<ref>''Constitución Política del Perú'', Articles Nº 146.</ref> though political intervention into judicial matters has been common throughout history and arguably continues today.<ref>Jeffrey Clark, . Retrieved on ], ].</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| The Peruvian government is ], and voting is ] for all citizens aged 18 to 70.<ref>''Constitución Política del Perú'', Article Nº 31.</ref> ] ended in a second round victory for presidential candidate ] of the ] (52.6% of valid votes) over ] of ] (47.4%).<ref>{{es icon}} Oficina Nacional de Procesos Electorales, . Retrieved on ], ].</ref> Congress is currently composed of Union for Peru (45 seats), the Peruvian Aprista Party (35 seats), ] (17 seats), ] (13 seats), the ] (5 seats), ] (2 seats), and ] (2 seats).<ref>{{es icon}} Oficina Nacional de Procesos Electorales, . Retrieved on ], ].</ref> | |||
| ] have been dominated by border conflicts with neighboring countries, most of which were settled during the 20th century.<ref>Ronald Bruce St John, ''The foreign policy of Peru'', pp. 223–224.</ref> There is still an ] with Chile over maritime limits in the Pacific Ocean.<ref>BBC News, . Retrieved on ], ].</ref> Peru is an active member of several regional blocs and one of the founders of the ]. It is also a participant in international organizations such as the ] and the ], where it is an elected member of the ] for the 2006–2007 term. The ] is composed of an army, a navy and an air force; its primary mission is to safeguard the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of the country.<ref>Ministerio de Defensa, ''Libro Blanco de la Defensa Nacional'', p. 90.</ref> The armed forces are subordinate to the ] and to the President as ]. ] was abolished in 1999 and replaced by ].<ref>''Ley Nº 27178, Ley del Servicio Militar'', Articles Nº 29, 42 and 45.</ref> | |||
| ==Regions== | |||
| {{main|Administrative divisions of Peru}} | |||
| {{Peru Labelled Area Map|float=right}} | |||
| Peru is divided into ] and the ]. Each region has an elected government composed of a president and a council, which serves for a four-year term.<ref>''Ley Nº 27867, Ley Orgánica de Gobiernos Regionales'', Article Nº 11.</ref> These governments plan regional development, execute public investment projects, promote economic activities, and manage public property.<ref>''Ley Nº 27867, Ley Orgánica de Gobiernos Regionales'', Article Nº 10.</ref> The province of Lima is administered by a city council.<ref>''Ley Nº 27867, Ley Orgánica de Gobiernos Regionales'', Article Nº 66.</ref> | |||
| '''Regions''': | |||
| {| style="background:none;" | |||
| |- | |||
| | | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| | style="vertical-align:top;" | | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| | | |||
| |} | |||
| '''Province''': | |||
| * ] | |||
| ==Geography== | |||
| {{main|Geography of Peru}} | |||
| ] | |||
| Peru covers 1,285,220 ] (496,193 ]), making it approximately two-thirds the size of Mexico. It neighbors Ecuador and Colombia to the north, Brazil to the east, Bolivia to the southeast, Chile to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. | |||
| The ] mountains run parallel to the Pacific Ocean, dividing the country into three geographic regions. The ''costa'' (coast), to the west, is a narrow plain, largely arid except for valleys created by seasonal rivers. The ''sierra'' (highlands) is the region of the Andes; it includes the '']'' plateau as well as the highest peak of the country, the 6,768 m (22,205 ft) ].<ref>AndesHandbook, . Retrieved on ], ].</ref> The third region is the ''selva'' (jungle), a wide expanse of flat terrain covered by the ] that extends east. Almost 60% of the country's area is located within this region.<ref>Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, ''El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico'', p. 16.</ref> | |||
| Most Peruvian rivers originate in the Andes and drain into one of three ]. Those that drain toward the Pacific Ocean are steep and short, flowing only intermittently. Tributaries of the ] are longer, have a much larger flow, and are less steep once they exit the ''sierra''. Rivers that drain into ] are generally short and have a large flow.<ref>Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, ''El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico'', p. 31.</ref> Peru's longest rivers are the ], the ], the ], the ], the ], the ], the ], and the ].<ref>Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, ''Perú: Compendio Estadístico 2005'', p. 21.</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| Peru, unlike other equatorial countries, does not have an exclusively tropical climate; the influence of the Andes and the ] cause great climatic diversity within the country. The ''costa'' has moderate temperatures, low precipitations, and high humidity, except for its warmer, wetter northern reaches.<ref>Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, ''El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico'', pp. 24–25.</ref> In the ''sierra'', rain is frequent during summer, and temperature and humidity diminish with altitude up to the frozen peaks of the Andes.<ref>Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, ''El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico'', pp. 25–26.</ref> The ''selva'' is characterized by heavy rainfall and high temperatures, except for its southermost part, which has cold winters and seasonal rainfall.<ref>Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, ''El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico'', pp. 26–27.</ref> Because of its varied geography and climate, Peru has high biodiversity; 21,462 species of plants and animals had been reported as of 2003, 5,855 of them ].<ref>Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, ''Perú: Compendio Estadístico 2005'', p. 50.</ref> The Peruvian government has established several ] for their preservation. | |||
| ==Economy== | |||
| {{main|Economy of Peru}} | |||
| ] is the main outlet for Peruvian exports.]] | |||
| Peru is a ] with a 2004 ] score of 0.767.<ref>United Nations Development Programme, , p. 284. Retrieved on ], ].</ref> Its 2006 ] was US$3,374;<ref>International Monetary Fund, . Retrieved on ], ].</ref> 51.6% of its total population is poor, including 19.2% that is extremely poor.<ref>2004 figure. Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, ''Condiciones de Vida en el Perú: Evolución 1997–2004'', pp. 71–72</ref> Historically, the country's economic performance has been tied to exports, which provide ] to finance imports and external debt payments.<ref>Rosemary Thorp and Geoffrey Bertram, ''Peru 1890–1977'', p. 4.</ref> Although exports have provided substantial revenue, self-sustained growth and a more egalitarian ] have proven elusive.<ref>Rosemary Thorp and Geoffrey Bertram, ''Peru 1890–1977'', p. 321.</ref> | |||
| Peruvian economic policy has varied widely over the past decades. The 1968–1975 government of ] introduced radical reforms, which included ], the expropriation of foreign companies, the introduction of an ], and the creation of a large state-owned sector. These measures failed to achieve their objectives of ] and the end of ].<ref>Rosemary Thorp and Geoffrey Bertram, ''Peru 1890–1977'', pp. 318–319.</ref> Despite these adverse results, most reforms were not reversed until the 1990s, when the ] government of ] ended ], ], restrictions on ], and most state ownership of companies.<ref>John Sheahan, ''Searching for a better society'', p. 157.</ref> Reforms have permitted sustained economic growth since 1993, except for a slump after the ].<ref>{{es icon}} Banco Central de Reserva, . Retrieved on ], ].</ref> | |||
| ] account for 53% of Peruvian ], followed by ] (22.3%), ] (15%), and taxes (9.7%).<ref>2006 figures. {{es icon}} Banco Central de Reserva, , p. 204. Retrieved on ], ].</ref> Recent economic growth has been fueled by macroeconomic stability, improved ], and rising investment and consumption.<ref>{{es icon}} Banco Central de Reserva, , pp. 15, 203. Retrieved on ], ].</ref> Trade is expected to increase further after the implementation of a ], which awaits ratification by the US Congress.<ref>Office of the U.S. Trade Representative, , ], ]. Retrieved on ], ].</ref> Peru's main exports are copper, gold, zinc, textiles, and fish meal; its major trade partners are the United States, China, Brazil, and Chile.<ref>2006 figures. {{es icon}} Banco Central de Reserva, , pp. 60–61. Retrieved on ], ].</ref> | |||
| ==Demographics== | |||
| {{main|Demographics of Peru}} | |||
| ] ancestry]] | |||
| With about 28 million inhabitants, Peru is the ] as of 2007.<ref>United Nations, {{PDFlink||1.29 ]<!-- application/pdf, 1359297 bytes -->}}, pp. 43–47. Retrieved on ], ]</ref> Its demographic growth declined from 2.6% to 1.6% between 1950 and 2000; population is expected to reach approximately 42 million in 2050.<ref>Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, ''Perú: Estimaciones y Proyecciones de Población, 1950–2050'', pp. 37–38, 40.</ref> As of 2005, 72.6% lived in urban areas and 27.4% in rural areas.<ref>Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, ''Perú: Estimaciones y Proyecciones de Población, 1950–2050'', p. 45.</ref> Major cities include ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ], all of which reported more than 200,000 inhabitants in the ].<ref>{{es icon}} Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, . Retrieved on ], ]</ref> | |||
| Peru is a ] formed by the combination of different groups over five centuries. ] inhabited Peruvian territory for several millennia before ] in the 16th century; infectious diseases, famine, war and exploitation decreased their population from an estimated 9 million in the 1520s to around 600,000 in 1620.<ref>Noble David Cook, ''Demographic collapse: Indian Peru, 1520–1620'', p. 114.</ref> Spaniards and Africans arrived in large numbers under colonial rule, mixing widely with each other and with indigenous peoples. After independence, there has been gradual immigration from England, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain.<ref>Mario Vázquez, "Immigration and mestizaje in nineteenth-century Peru", pp. 79–81.</ref> Chinese arrived in the 1850s as a replacement for slave workers and have since become a major influence in Peruvian society.<ref>Magnus Mörner, ''Race mixture in the history of Latin America'', p. 131.</ref> Other immigrant groups include Arabs and Japanese. | |||
| Spanish, the first language of 80.3% of Peruvians age 5 and older in 1993, is the primary language of the country. It coexists with several indigenous languages, the most important of which is ], spoken by 16.5% of the population in 1993. Other native and foreign languages were spoken at that time by 3% and 0.2% of Peruvians, respectively.<ref>{{es icon}} Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, . Retrieved on ], ]</ref> In the 1993 census, 89% of the population over 12 years old described themselves as ], 6.7% as ], 2.6% as of other denominations, and 1.4% as non-religious; 0.2% did not specify any affiliation.<ref>{{es icon}} Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, . Retrieved on ], ]</ref> Literacy was estimated at 88.9% in 2005; this rate is lower in rural areas (76.1%) than in urban areas (94.8%).<ref>{{es icon}} Portal Educativo Huascarán, . Retrieved on ], ]</ref> ] and ] are ] and free in public schools.<ref>''Constitución Política del Perú'', Article Nº 17.</ref> | |||
| ==Culture== | |||
| {{main|Culture of Peru}} | |||
| ] painting, 18th century]] | |||
| Peruvian culture is primarily rooted in Amerindian and Spanish traditions,<ref>Víctor Andrés Belaunde, ''Peruanidad'', p. 472.</ref> though it has also been influenced by various African, Asian, and European ethnic groups. | |||
| ] date back to the elaborate pottery, textiles, jewelry, and sculpture of ]. The Incas maintained these crafts and made ] achievements including the construction of ]. ] art dominated in colonial times, though it was modified by native traditions.<ref>Gauvin Alexander Bailey, ''Art of colonial Latin America'', pp. 72–74.</ref> During this period, most art focused on religious subjects; the numerous churches of the era and the paintings of the ] are representative.<ref>Gauvin Alexander Bailey, ''Art of colonial Latin America'', p. 263.</ref> Arts stagnated after independence until the emergence of '']'' in the early 20th century.<ref>Edward Lucie-Smith, ''Latin American art of the 20th century'', pp. 76–77, 145–146.</ref> Since the 1950s, Peruvian art has been ] and shaped by both foreign and local art currents.<ref>Damián Bayón, "Art, c. 1920–c. 1980", pp. 425–428.</ref> | |||
| ] has its roots in the oral traditions of ] civilizations. Spaniards introduced writing in the 16th century, and colonial literary expression included ]s and ]. After independence, ] and ] became the most common literary genres, as exemplified in the works of ].<ref>Gerald Martin, "Literature, music and the visual arts, c. 1820–1870", pp. 37–39.</ref> In the early 20th century, the ''Indigenismo'' movement produced such writers as ],<ref>Gerald Martin, "Narrative since c. 1920", pp. 151–152.</ref> ],<ref>Gerald Martin, "Narrative since c. 1920", pp. 178–179.</ref> and ].<ref>Jaime Concha, "Poetry, c. 1920–1950", pp. 250–253.</ref> During the second half of the century, Peruvian literature became more widely known because of authors such as ], a leading member of the ].<ref>Gerald Martin, "Narrative since c. 1920", pp. 186–188.</ref> | |||
| ]'' is made from seafood marinated in lemon juice.]] | |||
| ] is a blend of ] and ] with strong influences from African, Arab, Italian, Chinese, and Japanese cooking.<ref>Tony Custer, ''The Art of Peruvian Cuisine'', pp. 17–22.</ref> Common dishes include '']'', '']'', '']s'', and '']''. Because of the variety of climates within Peru, a wide range of plants and animals are available for cooking.<ref>Tony Custer, ''The Art of Peruvian Cuisine'', pp. 25–38.</ref> Peruvian cuisine has recently received acclaim due to its diversity of ingredients and techniques.<ref>Embassy of Peru in the United States, . Retrieved on ], ]</ref> | |||
| ] has Andean, Spanish and African roots.<ref>Raúl Romero, "Andean Peru", p. 385–386.</ref> In pre-Hispanic times, musical expressions varied widely from region to region; the '']'' and the '']'' were two common intruments.<ref>Dale Olsen, ''Music of El Dorado'', pp. 17–22.</ref> Spanish conquest brought the introduction of new instruments such as the guitar and the harp, as well as the development of crossbred instruments like the '']''.<ref>Thomas Turino, "Charango", p. 340.</ref> African contributions to Peruvian music include its rhythms and the '']'', a percussion instrument.<ref>Raúl Romero, "La música tradicional y popular", pp. 263–265.</ref> ] include the '']'', '']'' and '']''.<ref>Raúl Romero, "La música tradicional y popular", pp. 243–245, 261–263.</ref> | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| {{Peru topics|state=uncollapsed}} | |||
| ==Notes== | |||
| {{reflist|2}} | |||
| ==Bibliography== | |||
| <div class="references-small"> | |||
| ;Etymology | |||
| * {{es icon}} Porras Barrenechea, Raúl. ''El nombre del Perú''. Lima: Talleres Gráficos P.L. Villanueva, 1968. | |||
| ;History | |||
| * Andrien, Kenneth. ''Crisis and decline: the Viceroyalty of Peru in the seventeeth century''. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1985. | |||
| * Anna, Timothy. ''The fall of the royal government in Peru''. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1979. | |||
| * Bakewell, Peter. ''Miners of the Red Mountain: Indian labor in Potosi 1545–1650''. Alburquerque: University of New Mexico, 1984. | |||
| * BBC News. ''''. ], ]. | |||
| * Burkholder, Mark. ''From impotence to authority: the Spanish Crown and the American audiencias, 1687–1808''. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1977. | |||
| * D'Altroy, Terence. ''The Incas''. Malden: Blackwell, 2002. | |||
| * Dillehay, Tom, Duccio Bonavia and Peter Kaulicke. "The first settlers". In Helaine Silverman (ed.), ''Andean archaeology''. Malden: Blackwell, 2004, pp. 16–34. | |||
| * Gootenberg, Paul. ''Between silver and guano: commercial policy and the state in postindependence Peru''. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991. | |||
| * Gootenberg, Paul. ''Imagining development: economic ideas in Peru's "fictitious prosperity" of Guano, 1840–1880''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993. | |||
| * Haas, Jonathan, Winifred Creamer and Alvaro Ruiz. "Dating the Late Archaic occupation of the Norte Chico region in Peru". ''Nature'' 432: 1020–1023 (December 23, 2004). | |||
| * Klarén, Peter. ''Peru: society and nationhood in the Andes''. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. | |||
| * Mayer, Enrique. ''The articulated peasant: household economies in the Andes''. Boulder: Westview, 2002 | |||
| * Mücke, Ulrich. ''Political culture in nineteenth-century Peru''. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2004. | |||
| * O'Phelan, Scarlett. ''Rebellions and revolts in eighteenth century Peru and Upper Peru''. Cologne: Böhlau, 1985. | |||
| * Palmer, David. ''Peru: the authoritarian tradition''. New York: Praeger, 1980. | |||
| * Philip, George. ''The rise and fall of the Peruvian military radicals''. London: University of London, 1978. | |||
| * {{es icon}} ''Recopilación de leyes de los Reynos de las Indias''. Madrid: Cultura Hispánica, 1973 | |||
| * Schydlowsky, Daniel and Juan Julio Wicht. "Anatomy of an economic failure". In Cynthia McClintock and Abraham Lowenthal (ed.), ''The Peruvian experiment reconsidered''. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983, pp. 94–143. | |||
| * {{es icon}} Suárez, Margarita. ''Desafíos transatlánticos''. Lima: FCE/IFEA/PUCP, 2001. | |||
| * The Economist. ''''. ], ]. | |||
| * Walker, Charles. ''Smoldering ashes: Cuzco and the creation of Republican Peru, 1780–1840''. Durham: Duke University Press, 1999. | |||
| ;Government | |||
| * BBC News. . ], ]. | |||
| * Clark, Jeffrey. . New York: Lawyers Committee for Human Rights, 2000. | |||
| * {{es icon}} . ], ]. | |||
| * {{es icon}} {{DOClink|}}. ], ]. | |||
| * {{es icon}} Ministerio de Defensa. ''Libro Blanco de la Defensa Nacional''. Lima: Ministerio de Defensa, 2005 | |||
| * {{es icon}} Oficina Nacional de Procesos Electorales. . | |||
| * St John, Ronald Bruce. ''The foreign policy of Peru''. Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1992. | |||
| ;Regions | |||
| * {{es icon}} {{PDFlink||305 ]<!-- application/pdf, 312417 bytes -->}}. ], ]. | |||
| ;Geography | |||
| * AndesHandbook. . ], ]. | |||
| * {{es icon}} Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú. ''El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico''. Lima: Auge, 1996. | |||
| * {{es icon}} Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. {{PDFlink||8.31 ]<!-- application/pdf, 8714189 bytes -->}}. Lima: INEI, 2005. | |||
| ;Economy | |||
| * {{es icon}} Banco Central de Reserva. . | |||
| * {{es icon}} Banco Central de Reserva. . Lima: BCR, 2007. | |||
| * {{es icon}} Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. ''Condiciones de Vida en el Perú: Evolución 1997–2004''. Lima: INEI, 2006. | |||
| * International Monetary Fund. . April 2007. | |||
| * Office of the U.S. Trade Representative. . ], ]. | |||
| * Sheahan, John. ''Searching for a better society: the Peruvian economy from 1950''. University Park, Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999. | |||
| * Thorp, Rosemary and Geoffrey Bertram. ''Peru 1890–1977: growth and policy in an open economy''. New York: Columbia University Press, 1978. | |||
| * United Nations Development Programme. . New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006. | |||
| ;Demographics | |||
| * Cook, Noble David. ''Demographic collapse: Indian Peru, 1520–1620''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981. | |||
| * {{es icon}} Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. ''Perú: Estimaciones y Proyecciones de Población, 1950–2050''. Lima: INEI, 2001. | |||
| * {{es icon}} Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. . Lima: INEI, 1995. | |||
| * {{es icon}} Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. . Lima: INEI, 1994. | |||
| * Mörner, Magnus. ''Race mixture in the history of Latin America''. Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1967. | |||
| * {{es icon}} Portal Educativo Huascarán. . ], ]. | |||
| * United Nations. {{PDFlink||1.29 ]<!-- application/pdf, 1359297 bytes -->}}. New York: United Nations, 2007. | |||
| * Vázquez, Mario. "Immigration and mestizaje in nineteenth-century Peru". In: Magnus Mörner, ''Race and class in Latin America''. New York: Columbia University Press, 1970, pp. 73–95. | |||
| ;Culture | |||
| * Bailey, Gauvin Alexander. ''Art of colonial Latin America''. London: Phaidon, 2005. | |||
| * Bayón, Damián. "Art, c. 1920–c. 1980". In: Leslie Bethell (ed.), ''A cultural history of Latin America''. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1998, pp. 393–454. | |||
| * {{es icon}} Belaunde, Víctor Andrés. ''Peruanidad''. Lima: BCR, 1983. | |||
| * Concha, Jaime. "Poetry, c. 1920–1950". In: Leslie Bethell (ed.), ''A cultural history of Latin America''. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1998, pp. 227–260. | |||
| * Custer, Tony. ''The Art of Peruvian Cuisine''. Lima: Ediciones Ganesha, 2003. | |||
| * Embassy of Peru in the United States. . | |||
| * Lucie-Smith, Edward. ''Latin American art of the 20th century''. London: Thames and Hudson, 1993. | |||
| * Martin, Gerald. "Literature, music and the visual arts, c. 1820–1870". In: Leslie Bethell (ed.), ''A cultural history of Latin America''. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1998, pp. 3–45. | |||
| * Martin, Gerald. "Narrative since c. 1920". In: Leslie Bethell (ed.), ''A cultural history of Latin America''. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1998, pp. 133–225. | |||
| * Olsen, Dale. ''Music of El Dorado: the ethnomusicology of ancient South American cultures''. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2002. | |||
| * {{es icon}} Romero, Raúl. "La música tradicional y popular". In: Patronato Popular y Porvenir, ''La música en el Perú''. Lima: Industrial Gráfica, 1985, pp. 215–283. | |||
| * Romero, Raúl. "Andean Peru". In: John Schechter (ed.), ''Music in Latin American culture: regional tradition''. New York: Schirmer Books, 1999, pp. 383–423. | |||
| * Turino, Thomas. "Charango". In: Stanley Sadie (ed.), ''The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments''. New York: MacMillan Press Limited, 1993, vol. I, p. 340. | |||
| </div> | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| {{sisterlinks|Peru}} | |||
| ; Government | |||
| * {{es icon}} of the Peruvian Government | |||
| * {{es icon}} of Peruvian Government websites | |||
| ; General reference | |||
| * ] country profile of | |||
| * {{CIA World Factbook link|pe|Peru}} | |||
| * ] entry on | |||
| * | |||
| ; Other | |||
| * {{wikitravel|Peru}} | |||
| * {{dmoz|Regional/South_America/Peru/}} | |||
| <!-- ==============================({{NoMoreLinks}})============================== --> | |||
| <!-- DO NOT ADD MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. WIKIPEDIA IS NOT A COLLECTION OF LINKS --> | |||
| <!-- If you think that your link might be useful, instead of placing it here, put --> | |||
| <!-- it on this article's discussion page first. Links that have not been verified --> | |||
| <!-- WILL BE DELETED --> | |||
| <!-- ============================================================================= --> | |||
| {{Template group | |||
| |title = Geographic locale | |||
| |list = | |||
| {{Countries of South America}} | |||
| }} | |||
| {{Template group | |||
| |title = International membership | |||
| |list = | |||
| {{UN Security Council}} | |||
| {{Latin Union}} | |||
| {{Union of South American Nations (Unasur\Unasul)}} | |||
| {{Andean Community of Nations}} | |||
| {{Mercosur\Mercosul (Southern Common Market)}} | |||
| {{Organization of American States (OAS)}} | |||
| {{G15 nations}} | |||
| }} | |||
| {{featured article}} | |||
| <!--Categories--> | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| <!--Other languages--> | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
Revision as of 02:22, 15 August 2007
SHUT UP NO ONE CARES!