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Jamhuuriyadda Soomaaliland جمهورية أرض الصومال Jumhūrīyat Ard' As-sumalِ Republic of Somaliland
Flag National Emblem of Somaliland National Emblem
Motto: لا إله إلا الله محمد رسول الله  (Arabic) Lā ilāhā illā-llāhu; muhammadun rasūlu-llāhi  (transliteration) "There is no God but Allah; Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah" And also : "Justice, Peace, Freedom, Democracy and Success for All"
Anthem: Saamo ku waar
Capital	Hargeisa
Official languages	Somali and Arabic
Government	Representative democracy
• President	Dahir Riyale Kahin
• Vice-President	Ahmed Yusuf Yasin
Independence from Somalia
• Proclaimed	18 May 1991
• Recognition	Unrecognized
Area
• Total	134,000 km (52,000 sq mi)
Population
• 2005 estimate	3.5 million
• Density	26/km (67.3/sq mi)
Currency	Somaliland shilling (SLSH)
Time zone	UTC+3 (EAT)
• Summer (DST)	UTC+3 (not observed)
Calling code	252
Internet TLD	none
Rankings may not be available because of its unrecognized de facto state. Developments in the eastern half of the country have made area and population estimates unreliable until the situation settles.

Somaliland (Template:Lang-so) is a de facto independent republic located in the Horn of Africa within the internationally recognized borders of Somalia. On May 18 1991, the people of Somaliland declared independence from Somalia. However, it was not recognized by any other country or international organization.

The Republic of Somaliland considers itself to be the successor state of the former British Somaliland protectorate, which had an area of about 137,600 km² (53,128 sq mi), briefly an independent country for five days in 1960. It is bordered by Ethiopia in the south and west, Djibouti in the northwest, the Gulf of Aden in the north, and the autonomous regions of Maakhir and Puntland in the east.

Control over eastern borders of Somaliland is unclear, due to disputes with Puntland and separatist movements.

History

The origins of the Somalis and their time of entry into present-day Somaliland have been debated, with many Somalis claiming descent from Arab patriarchs who settled on the coast 1,000 years ago, although genetics do not bear this out and show Somalis to be for the most part native to the Horn of Africa. By the 12th century, the ancestors of some of the clan families were already established in their present territories, while others moved southward through the 19th century. The borders of Somalia were set at the end of the 19th century and a great number of Somalis were left out by the border placement, leaving them in eastern Ethiopia and northern Kenya.

Historical Somaliland

Evidence of early human habitation in what is modern-day Somaliland are the significant Neolithic cave paintings at Laas Gaal (Laas Geel), a site outside the capital Hargeisa. The paintings show people worshipping cattle, the cows wearing ceremonial robes while next to them are some of these people prostrating themselves in front of the animals. Paintings of giraffes, domesticated canines and wild antelopes are also present. The caves were discovered by a French archaeological team during November and December 2002, and have become a major tourist attraction and a national treasure.

Islam was introduced in the 10th century into what are now the Afar-inhabited parts of Eritrea and Djibouti. A number of Islamic sultanates emerged in the following centuries, one of which was the Adal Sultanate, centred on the towns of Dakkar (and later Harar) the port of Zeila as its second city, and the regions of Saaxil and Maroodi Jeex. Another early coastal city is Berbera, first mentioned in the 13th century, but as I.M. Lewis notes, like Mayit to the east, its earliest history is obscure.

These Islamic realms acknowledged the Christian Emperor of Ethiopia as their overlord in the 13th century, although they attempted to exert their independence periodically in the following centuries. In the mid 16th century Adal attempted a great conquest of Ethiopia from its capital of Harar, which ended in failure and led to the sultanate's collapse. The part of Western Somaliland centred around Zeila became part of the Ottoman province of Habesh.

Ottoman and Egyptian Rule

In 1546, the Ottoman Empire occupied the western regions of Somaliland and made Zeila the regional capital due to its strategic location on the Red Sea. The region became part of the province of Habesh. From 1630 to 1830, Ottoman Somaliland was under the rule of the Grand Sharifs of Mecca.

Between 1830 to 1874, the Ottomans ruled Somaliland under de facto hereditary governors. The area was subsequently occupied and governed by Egypt, whose rule commenced on 7 September 1874. Though still nominally under Ottoman suzerainty, Egypt had been governed as an essentially independent state by the Muhammad Ali Dynasty since the beginning of the 19th Century, and its current ruler, Khedive Ismail I was eager to extend Egyptian control down the Red Sea coast. Ottoman and Egyptian buildings and houses can still be seen dotted all around Berbera, Zeila and Hargeisa.

Colonial era

During colonial times, Egyptian Somaliland was taken over by the British following their occupation of Egypt itself in 1882. The region now claimed by Somaliland was annexed and officially became the British Somaliland protectorate.

In August of 1940, during World War II, as part of their East African Campaign Italy conquered Somaliland from Great Britain. This was the only victory of the Italian army - without German forces - against the Allies. One year later, in the summer of 1941, the British defeated the Italians in the horn of Africa and again occupied Berbera and all Somaliland.

British Somaliland became independent on 26 June 1960 as the State of Somaliland, and Italian Somaliland's independence came four days later, whereupon the two entities immediately merged on 1 July 1960 as the Somali Republic. The first minister of the State of Somaliland, Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal, became a minister of the new Somali Republic.

Merger into Somalia

Somaliland was a legal part of Somalia from July 1, 1960. As an administrative entity, Somaliland was dissolved after its merger with Somalia, and its area was divided or incorporated into provinces. The Isaaq and Majeerteen clans suffered from repression under the regime of Siad Barre, who came into power through a coup d'état in the late 1960's. The regime of Siad Barre, however, did not last and collapsed during the Somali Civil War, paving the way for the creation of the Second Republic of Somaliland.

Second Republic

In 1991, after the collapse of the central government in Somalia, main part of the territory asserted its independence as the Republic of Somaliland in May 18, 1991. It regarded itself as the successor state to the briefly-independent State of Somaliland, but did not receive any international diplomatic recognition.

The economic and military infrastructure left behind by Somalia has been largely destroyed by war. The people of Somaliland had rebelled against the Siad Barre dictatorship in Mogadishu, which prompted a massive reaction by the government.

The late Abdirahman Ahmed Ali Tuur was the first president of Somaliland. Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal was appointed his successor in 1993 by the Grand Conference of National Reconciliation in Boorama (Borama), which met for four months and led not only to a gradual improvement in security, but solidified the fledgling state. Egal was re-appointed in 1997, and remained in power until his death on May 3, 2002. The vice president Dahir Riyale Kahin was sworn in as president shortly afterwards, and in 2003 Kahin became the first Somaliland president to be elected in a free and fair election.

The 2006 War in Somalia between the Islamic Courts Union and the forces of Ethiopia and Somalia's transitional government has not directly affected Somaliland.

Politics and government

Somaliland has formed a hybrid system of governance under the Constitution of Somaliland, combining traditional and western institutions. In a series of inter-clan conferences, culminating in the Boorama Conference in 1993, a qabil (clan or community) system of government was constructed, which consisted of an Executive, with a President, Vice President, and Council of Ministers, a bicameral Legislature, and an independent judiciary. The traditional Somali council of elders (guurti) was incorporated into the governance structure and formed the upper house, responsible for selecting a President as well as managing internal conflicts. Government became in essence a "power-sharing coalition of Somaliland's main clans", with seats in the Upper and Lower houses proportionally allocated to clans according to a predetermined formula. In 2002, after several extensions of this interim government, Somaliland finally made the transition to multi-party democracy, with district council elections contested by six parties, considered the most peaceful in Africa for twenty years.

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Somaliland

Somaliland has political contacts with the United Kingdom, Ethiopia, Belgium, Ghana, South Africa, Sweden and Djibouti (until 2006). On January 17, 2007, the European Union sent a delegation for foreign affairs to discuss future cooperation. The African Union has also sent a foreign minister to discuss the future of international acknowledgment, and on January 29 and 30, 2007, the minsters said that they would discuss acknowledgement with other member states In June 2007, the Prime Minister of Ethiopia, Meles Zenawi held a conference with President Kahin during which he was referred to in an official communique by the Ethiopian Foreign Ministry as the President of Somaliland, the first time that Somaliland has been officially acknowledged as a sovereign state by another government. While this is not claimed as a move to official recognition by Ethiopia, it is seen as a possible step towards a unilateral declaration by Ethiopia in the event of the African Union failing to move its recognition of Somaliland forward.

Border disputes

The Republic of Somaliland continues to claim the entire area of the former British Somaliland. Somaliland is currently in control of the western half of the former British Somaliland, with northeastern Maakhir having declared a separate, unrecognized autonomous state within Somalia on July 1, 2007 and southeastern Sool disputed with Puntland, who has been in de facto control over it since 2003. A separatist movement exists also in the westernmost Awdal province.

Further complicating the situation may be the probable future declaration of the autonomous region of Darwiishland in Sool.

Tensions heightened to a violent clash between Puntland and Somaliland in October, 2007, when Somaliland forces captured Las Anod, the capital of the disputed region of Sool.

Military

The Somaliland Armed Forces are the main military system in the unrecognised Republic of Somaliland. They consist of three main military services: the Army, the Navy and Air Defence Forces. Also, the Somaliland Police Force are part of the internal security forces and are subordinate to the military. Currently around 20 000 personnel are active in Somaliland. The Somaliland Armed Forces takes the biggest share of the government's budget with the police and security forces. The current person in charge of Somaliland's Armed Forces is the Minister of Defence Mudane Adan Mire Mohammed MP.

Some military facilities were bought during Egal's administration to assist the military's usual duties and the necessary movements. The army is organised into 12 divisions which comprise of 4 tank brigades, 45 mechanized and infantry brigades, 4 commando brigades, surface-to-air missile brigade, 3 artillery brigades, 300 field battalions, and an air defense battalion.

Administrative divisions

Regions of Somaliland under control of the Republic of Somaliland:

• Awdal
• Maroodi Jeex
• Saaxil
• Togdheer
• Sool (Status still unclear)
• Western Sanaag (eastern Sanaag declared its own state as Maakhir in July 1, 2007)

The main cities and towns in the Republic of Somaliland are:

• Hargeisa (Hargeysa), capital
• Burco (Burao)
• Berbera
• Boorama (Borama)
• Western Ceerigaabo (Erigabo)
• Laascaanood (Las Anod)
• Gabiley
• Zeila (Saylac)
• Odweyne

Geography

Somaliland is situated on the eastern horn of Africa and lies between the 08°00' - 11°30' parallel north of the equator and between 42°30' - 49°00' meridian east of Greenwich. It shares borders with the Republic of Djibouti to the west, the Federal Republic of Ethiopia to the south, the Puntland region to the northeast and Somalia to the southeast. Somaliland has 460 miles (740 km) of coast with the majority along the Red Sea. Somaliland is slightly larger than England with an area of 137 600 km² (53 100 sq miles).

Somaliland's climate is a mixture of wet and dry. The northern part of the country is hilly and in many places the altitude ranges between 900 and 2,100 metres (3,000-7,000 ft) above sea level. The Awdal, Saaxil and Maroodi Jeex regions are fertile and mountainous, while the Togdheer is rather semi-desert with a few fertile greenery around. The Awdal region is known for its offshore islands, coral reefs and mangroves.

Ten kilometres to the north of Ceerigaabo are the remains of a juniper forest, running along the edge of the escarpment which looks down to the Gulf of Aden. The escarpment is approximately 2,000 metres above sea level, where the road from Ceerigaabo drops down to the coast. Two kilometres to the west it rises to the highest point in Somaliland and Somalia alike; At 2,416 metres high, it is known variously as (Somali Shimbiris or Shimbir Beris) meaning in English the abode of the birds.

Due to the fertility and greenery of some of the regions of Somaliland, wild animals (e.g. zebras) come to the area; to either breed or graze on the grassland savanna. There are many animals which are native to Somaliland. The prominent animals found are the Kudu, wild boar, Somali Wild Ass, warthogs, antelopes, the Somali sheep, wild goats and camels. Moreover, many birds and different types of fish are also found in and around Somaliland.

Economy

Somaliland's economy is in its developing stages, as is the country itself.

The Somaliland shilling, while stable, is not an internationally recognized currency and currently has no official exchange rate. It is regulated by the Bank of Somaliland, the central bank, which was established constitutionally in 1994.

The bulk of Somaliland's exports are of livestock, which has been estimated to be at 24 million. In 1996, 3 million heads of livestock were exported to the Middle East. In February 1998, this export was negatively impacted by a Saudi Arabian ban on imports of beef. The ban was eventually lifted on December, 2006, and thus, allowed the industry to recover. Other exports include hides, skins, myrrh, and frankincense.

Agriculture is generally considered to be a potentially successful industry, especially in the production of cereals and horticulture. Mining also has potentials, although currently it consists solely of quarrying. Deposits of hugely diverse quantities of minerals are present.

A recent research around Somaliland shows that the country has large offshore and onshore oil and natural gas reserves. There are several wells that have been excavated during the last few years but due to the country's unrecognised status, foreign oil companies cannot benefit from it.

Since the Eritrean-Ethiopian War, Somaliland has grown as a major export port for Ethiopia. The two countries signed a deal that the port city of Berbera will export and import goods for Ethiopia, while the latter will pay for it.

Tourism

When Somaliland broke away from Somalia, the tourism industry began to re-build itself. Somaliland is often considered to be home to one of the most interesting attractions in the Horn of Africa, the Laas Gaal cave paintings. It is believed that a small number of tourists travel to the country to witness this sight. The paintings are situated near Hargeisa and were discovered by a French archaeological team in 2002. The government and locals keep the cave paintings safe and only a restricted number of tourists are allowed. Other notable sights include the Freedom Arch in Hargeisa and the war memorial in the city center. Natural attractions are very common around the country. The Naasa Hablood hills are twin hills located on the outskirts of Hargeisa that Somalilanders consider to be a majestic natural landmark.

The Ministry of Tourism has also encouraged travellers to visit historic towns and cities in Somaliland. The historic town of Sheikh is near Berbera and it is home to old British colonial buildings that have been untouched for over forty years. Berbera also houses historic and impressive Ottoman architectural buildings. Another equally famous historic city is Zeila. Zeila was once part of the Ottoman Empire, a dependency of Yemen and Egypt and a major trade city during the 19th century. The city has been visited for its old colonial landmarks, offshore mangroves and coral reefs and its towering cliffs and beach. The nomadic culture of Somaliland has also attracted tourists. Most nomads live in the countryside.

Demographics

Languages

Most people in Somaliland speak the country's two official languages: the Somali language and the Arabic language, with Article 6 of the Constitution of 2001 designating the official language of Somaliland to be Somali. It is mandatory that Arabic be taught to school students and in mosques around the country. English is spoken and taught in schools.

Somali belongs to a set of languages called lowland East Cushitic languages spoken by peoples living in Ethiopia, Somalia, Djibouti, and Kenya. Eastern Cushitic is one section of the Cushitic languages, which in turn is part of the great Afro-Asiatic stock. Arabic is the most spoken language of the Afro-Asiatic language branches.

The main Somali dialect which is the most widely used is Common Somali, a term applied to several sub dialects, the speakers of which can understand each other easily. Common Somali is spoken in most of Somaliland and Somalia and in adjacent territories (Ethiopia, Kenya, and Djibouti), and is used by broadcasting stations in Somaliland.

Facility with language is highly valued in Somali society; the capability of a suitor, a warrior, or a political or religious leader is judged in part by his verbal adroitness. In such a society, oral poetry becomes an art, and one's ability to compose verse in one or more of its several forms enhances one's status. Speakers in political or religious assemblies and litigants in courts traditionally were expected to use poetry or poetic proverbs. Even everyday talk tended to have a terse, vivid, poetic style, characterized by carefully chosen words, condensed meaning, and alliteration.

In the prerevolutionary era, English became dominant in the school system and in government. However, the overarching issue was the development of a socioeconomic stratum based on mastery of a foreign language. The relatively small proportion of Somalis (less than 10 percent) with a grasp of such a language--preferably English--had access to government positions and the few managerial or technical jobs in modern private enterprises. Such persons became increasingly isolated from their nonliterate Somali-speaking brethren, but because the secondary schools and most government posts were in urban areas the socioeconomic and linguistic distinction was in large part a rural-urban one.

Even before the 1969 revolution, Somalis had become aware of social stratification and the growing distance, based on language and literacy differences, between ordinary Somalis and those in government. The 1972 decision to designate an official Somali Latin script and require its use in government demolished the language barrier and an important obstacle to rapid literacy growth.

In the years following the institution of the Somali Latin script, Somali officials were required to learn the orthography and attempts were made to inculcate mass literacy--in 1973 among urban and rural sedentary Somalis, and in 1974-75 among nomads. Although a few texts existed in the new script before 1973, in most cases new books were prepared presenting the government's perspective on Somali history and development. Somali scholars also succeeded in developing a vocabulary to deal with a range of subjects from mathematics and physics to administration and ideology.

Religion

Almost all Somalis are Sunni Muslims; Islam is the principal faith and state religion. Though traces of pre-Islamic traditional religion exist in Somaliland, Islam is extremely important to the Somali sense of national identity. Many of the Somali social norms come from their religion. For example, men shake hands only with men, and women shake hands with women. Many Somali women wear a hijab when they are in public. In addition, Somalis abstain from pork, gambling, and alcohol, and receiving or paying any form of interest. Muslims generally congregate on Friday afternoons for a sermon and group prayer. Accordance with these prohibitions depends on each individual's level of orthodoxy.

Nevertheless there has been Catholic missionary activity. In colonial days, British Somaliland was under the care of the Roman Catholic Vicariate Apostolic of Arabia, like the Vicariate Apostolic of the Gallas (including French Somaliland (Djibouti) as well as its Ethiopian main territory) confided to the Order of Friars Minor Capuchin.

Culture

Clan system

There are approximately 3.5 million people in Somaliland. The Somali society is organized into clan families, which range from 5,000 to over 50,000 in size. The major clan family in Somaliland is the Isaaq. The second clan family and also the clan family of the president is the Gadabuursi. Other clan families include Issa, Gabooye family and the Somaliland Harti such as the Warsangali and Dhulbahante (a sub-group of the Darod clan). The Warsangali and Dhulbahante mostly reside in the Sool, Sanaag, and a small part of the Togdheer regions of Somaliland, while the Isaaqs live in the regions of Maroodi Jeex, Togdheer, Saaxil, eastern and northern Awdal, western Sanaag and western Sool. The Gadabursi clan family lives in the west of the country, in the Awdal region and parts of Gabiley District.

The clan families are divided into lineage units, typically ranging from 2,500 to 10,000 members. It is possible for Somalis to know how they are related simply by giving their name and clan membership. Clan discrimination in Somaliland is highly forbidden and every clan is considered equal by the Government of Somaliland.

Marriage

Most Somalilanders choose to marry who ever they desire as long as they are Muslims. In the case of arranged marriages, brides are usually much younger than the grooms. Marriage to a cousin from the mother's side of the family (of a different lineage) is traditionally favored to strengthen family alliance, but this practice is not as common as earlier. Virginity is valued in women prior to marriage. In addition, divorce is legal in Somaliland. Romantic marriages are becoming more common and are now the majority of marriages in Somaliland. But even these choices are influenced by the partner's clan.

Cuisine

It is considered polite for one to leave a little bit of food on a plate after finishing a meal at another's home. This tells the host that one has been given enough food. If one were to clean his or her plate that would indicate that he or she is still hungry. Most Somalis don't take this rule so seriously, but it is certainly not impolite to leave a few bits of food on one's plate. Traditionally, the main meal of the day is eaten at lunchtime and Somali people usually begin their day with a flat bread called laxoox or La'hooh, liver, toast, cereal or porridge made of millet or cornmeal. Lunch can be a mix of rice or noodles with meat and sauce. When the Italians ruled the Horn of Africa they brought some of their cuisine to Somaliland for example Pasta Al Forno (in Somali Paasto Forno} and they also planted bananas in the south of the region. Also during lunch their diet may consist of a traditional soup called maraq (It is also part of Yemeni cuisine) made of vegetables, meat and beans and usually eaten with flatbread or pita bread. Later in the day a lighter meal is served which includes beans, ful medames, muffo (patties made of oats or corn), hummus or a salad with more laxoox/injera. A minority of Somalis drink Turkish coffee which they brought from Arab countries to their homeland. Turkish tea is also drunk in Somaliland; it has been adapted to become one of the famous drinks in the region - the traditional and cultural Shaax Xawaash. Consumed by the majority of Somalis, it is made of cardamom (Somali Xawaash} and cinnamon barks (Somali Qoronfil).

Arts

Islam and poetry have been described as the twin pillars of Somali culture. Most Somalis are Sunni Muslims and Islam is vitally important to the Somali sense of national identity. Most Somalis don't belong to specific mosque or sect and can pray in any mosque they find.

Celebrations come in the form of religious festivities, two of the most important being Eid ul-Adha and Eid ul-Fitr which marks the end of the fasting month. Families get dressed up to visit one another. Money is donated to the poor. Other holidays include June 26 and May 18, which celebrates Somaliland's independence from Britain and Somalia, however it is unrecognised by the international community.

In a nomadic culture, where one's possessions are frequently moved, there is little reason for the plastic arts to be highly developed. Somalis embellish and decorate their woven and wooden milk jugs (Somali Haano, the most decorative jugs are made in Ceerigaabo) and their wooden headrests, and traditional dance is important; though mainly as a form of courtship among young people. The traditional dance known as the Ceeyar Somaali in the Somali language is Somaliland's favourite dance.

Also, an important form of art in Somaliland is henna painting (Mehndi) (Somali: Xenna). The Henna plant is widely grown across the region and it was Arab merchants and settlers that first brought the art of henna painting in early Somaliland. During special occasions, a Somali women's hands and feet are expected to be covered in decorative mendhi. Girls and women usually apply or decorate their hands and feet in henna on joyous celebrations like Eid, weddings etc. The henna designs can be very simple to highly intricate. Unlike Pakistani, Indian or Bangladeshi henna designs, the Somali and Arab designs are more modern and simple compared to the latter. Traditionally, only women apply this body art and it is considered as a feminine procedure therefore men don't apply such procedure.

Henna is not only applied on the hands and feet but at the same time it is used as a dye. Somali men and women alike use henna as a dye to change their hair colour. Mostly, elderly men with grey hair apply such procedure because black hair dye is, allegedly, forbidden in Islam. Women are free to apply henna on their hair as most of the time they are wearing a hijab.

Notes

1. ^ Puntland's control over parts of Somaliland. The Somaliland Times. February 1, 2006 (afrol News).
2. ^ Formation of Maakhir state to eastern Somaliland.
3. I.M. Lewis, A Modern History of the Somali, fourth edition (Oxford: James Currey, 2002), p. 21
4. Lewis, A Modern History, pp. 282-286
5. Article by International Herald Tribune. March 7, 2007.
6. "Somaliland". United Kingdom Parliament. Retrieved 2007-02-23.
7. ^ "Somaliland closer to recognition by Ethiopia". afrol News. Retrieved 2007-07-06.
8. "Somaliland, Djibouti at a nitter port feud". afrol News. Retrieved 2007-07-22.
9. "EU Breaks Ice on Financing Somaliland". Global Policy Forum. Retrieved 2007-02-23.
10. "AU supports Somali split". Mail and Guardian online. Retrieved 2007-02-23.
11. "Awdal "Republic": Declaration of Independence, [Somalia]". University of Pennsylvania - African Studies Center. Retrieved 2007-01-29.
13. Al-Jazeera: Rival Somali regions in armed clash.
14. "Republic of Somaliland Country Profile". Somaliland Official website. Retrieved 2005-12-02.

Sources and references

•  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
• Wales Strikes Out On Its Own In Its Recognition of Somaliland

See also

• Communications in Somaliland
• Public holidays in Somaliland
• Banknotes of the Somaliland shilling
• Coins of the Somaliland shilling
• List of unrecognized countries
• Places That Don't Exist - BBC Four miniseries on unrecognised countries that featured Somaliland

External links

• Somaliland official website
• Somaliland.Org news website (primarily Somali language; some English)
• Somaliland Times English language news website.
• Somaliland BBC Country Profile
• United Kingdom parliamentary debate on recognition of Somaliland, February 4 2004 led by Tony Worthington
• Somaliland recognition finds enhanced support

v t e Disputed and de facto states of Somalia
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Islamist Jamaats	al-Shabaab
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