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| {{three other uses| Chinese civilization|the modern political state comprising ], ] and ]|People's Republic of China|the modern political state comprising ]|Republic of China}} | |||
| {{contains Chinese text}} | |||
| {{Chinese/China | |||
| |t={{linktext|中|國}} | |||
| |s={{linktext|中|国}} | |||
| |p=Zhōngguó | |||
| |tp=Jhongguó | |||
| |w=Chung¹-kuo²<br />{{Audio|zh-zhongguo.ogg|Listen}} | |||
| |j=zung¹ gwok³ | |||
| |poj=Tiong-kok | |||
| |h=Chûng-koet | |||
| }} | |||
| '''China''' ({{zh-tsht|t={{linktext|中|國}}|s={{linktext|中|国}} |hp={{Audio|zh-zhongguo.ogg|Zhōngguó}}|tp=Jhongguó}}; ] (]): Chung¹kuo²) is a ], an ancient ], and, depending on perspective, a ]al or ] entity extending over a large area in ]. | |||
| China has one of the world's oldest people and continuous civilizations, consisting of states and ] dating back more than six millennia. It has the world's longest continuously used ], and is the source of ], such as what the British scholar and biochemist ] called the "]": ], the ], ], and ]. Historically, China's cultural sphere has extended across East Asia as a whole, with Chinese religion, customs, and writing systems being adopted to varying degrees by neighbors such as ], ] and ]. | |||
| The last ] has resulted in ]: | |||
| *the ''']''', commonly known as '''China''', has control over ], and the largely self-governing territories of ] (since 1997) and ] (since 1999). | |||
| *the ''']''', commonly known as ''']''', has control over the islands of ], ], ], and ]. | |||
| {{TOClimit|limit=2}} | |||
| ==Etymology== | |||
| {{main|Names of China}} | |||
| ] | |||
| ===China=== | |||
| ] and many other languages use various forms of the name "China" and the ] "Sino-" or "Sin-". These forms are thought to derive from the name of the ] that first unified the country (221–206 ]). The pronunciation of "''Qin''" is similar to the phonetic "cheen", which is considered the possible root of the word "China".<ref>The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th ed (AHD4). Boston and New York, Houghton-Mifflin, 2000, entries ''china, Qin, Sino-''.</ref> | |||
| ===Zhōngguó the Middle Kingdom=== | |||
| China is known as 'Zhōngguó' in ] and ] (] in ] or ] in ]). The character ''zhōng'' means "middle" or central; the letter, ''guó'', means land, kingdom or country. An appropriate English translation would be "middle kingdom".<!-- ] Middle Kingdom: A Survey of the Geography, Government, Literature, Social Life, Arts, and History of the Chinese Empire occupies a 'central' position in the known universe."<ref>''Mao's China and the Cold War''. UNC Press. ISBN 0-8078-4932-4</ref> --> | |||
| The name ''"Zhōngguó"'' first appeared in the '']'' (6th century BCE), and was used to refer to the late ], as they believed that they were the "center of civilization",<ref>《尚書•梓材》:「皇天既付中國民越厥疆土于先王」Roughly translated as "The Heavens awarded the lands and peoples of Zhōngguó to our ancestors".</ref> while peoples in the four cardinals were called ], ], ] and ] respectively. Some texts imply that "Zhōngguó" was originally meant to refer to the capital of the sovereign, to differ from the capital of his vassals.<ref>《毛亨·傳》：「中國，京師也」 Roughly translated as "Zhōngguó, the capital."</ref> The use of ''"Zhōngguó"'' implied a claim of political legitimacy, and ''"Zhōngguó"'' was often used by states who saw themselves as the sole legitimate successor to previous Chinese dynasties; for example, in the era of the ], both the ] and the Southern Song state claimed to be ''"Zhōngguó"''.<ref> See Quansongwen (8,345 chapters), 2005. Historic texts written in the period of Southern Song refer to the Jin Dynasty as "barbarians", while Jin texts portray the Song as "Manzi". Official historic texts such as Songshi, which is written after the period, are more neutral. </ref> | |||
| ''"Zhōngguó"'' came to official use as an abbreviation for the ] (''Zhonghua Minguo'') after the government's establishment in 1912. Since the ], established in 1949, now controls the great majority of the area encompassed within the traditional concept of "China", the People's Republic is the political unit most commonly identified with the abbreviated name ''"Zhōngguó"''.<ref>The official name of the ] in ] is "中華民國", "中华民国" in ]. The official name of the PRC in ] is "中华人民共和国", "中華人民共和國" in ]. ''"Zhōngguó"'' are the first and last characters of both of these official names. Although in both of these contexts, the name does not contain the exact phrasing of "Zhōngguó", it is expressed in the similar phrase "Zhonghua", while the PRC's official abbreviation is "中国".</ref> | |||
| ==History== | |||
| {{main|History of China|Timeline of Chinese history}} | |||
| {{History of China}} | |||
| ] was one of the earliest centers of human civilization. Chinese civilization was also one of the few to invent ] independently, the others being ], the ], the ], the ] of ancient ], and ]. | |||
| ===Prehistory=== | |||
| Archaeological evidence suggests that the earliest humans in China date from 2.24 million to 250,000 years ago.<ref> by </ref><ref> at </ref> A cave in ] (near present-day ]) has fossils dated at somewhere between 300,000 to 550,000 years. | |||
| The earliest evidence of a fully modern human in China comes from ], ], where a cranium has been found and dated to approximately 67,000 years ago. Although much controversy persists over the dating of the Liujiang remains,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-personal.une.edu.au/%7Epbrown3/Liujiang.html|title=The Liujiang skeleton}}</ref><ref>{{Dead link|date=August 2008}}at </ref>{{Dead link|date=August 2008}} a partial skeleton from Minatogawa in ], Japan has been dated to 18,250 ± 650 to 16,600 ± 300 years ago, so modern humans must have reached China before that time. | |||
| ===Dynastic rule=== | |||
| {{main|Dynasties in Chinese history|Chinese sovereign}} | |||
| Chinese tradition names the first ] ], but it was considered mythical until scientific excavations found early ] sites at ] in ] Province.<ref> by </ref> Archaeologists have since uncovered urban sites, bronze implements, and tombs in locations cited as Xia's in ancient historical texts, but it is impossible to verify that these remains are of the Xia without written records from the period. | |||
| ] of the ], ca. 210 BCE.]] | |||
| The second dynasty, the loosely feudal ], settled along the ] in eastern China from the 18th to the 12th century BCE. They were invaded from the west by the ], who ruled from the 12th to the 5th century BCE until their centralized authority was slowly eroded by neighboring warlords. Many strong, independent states continually waged war with each other in the ], only occasionally deferring to the Zhou king. | |||
| The first unified Chinese state was established by the ] in 221 BCE, when the office of the ] was set up and the Chinese language was forcibly standardized. This state did not last long, as its ] policies soon led to widespread rebellion. | |||
| The subsequent ] ruled China between 206 BCE and 220 CE, and created a lasting ] among its populace that would last to the present day. The Han Dynasty expanded the empire's territory considerably with military campaigns reaching ], ], ] and ], and also helped establish the ] in Central Asia. | |||
| After Han's collapse, another period of disunion followed, including the highly chivalric period of the ]. Independent Chinese states of this period also opened diplomatic relations with Japan, introducing the Chinese writing system there. In 580 CE, China was reunited under the ]. However, the Sui Dynasty was short-lived after a failure in the ] (598–614) weakened it. | |||
| ] ] vase from ] province, during the ].]] | |||
| Under the succeeding ] and ] dynasties, Chinese technology and culture reached its zenith. The Song dynasty was the first government in world history to issue paper money and the first Chinese ] to establish a permanent standing navy. Between the 10th and 11th centuries, the population of China doubled in size. This growth came about through expanded rice cultivation in central and southern China, and the production of abundant food surpluses. Within its borders, the Northern Song Dynasty had a population of some 100 million people. The Song Dynasty was a culturally rich period in China for the arts, philosophy, and social life. ] and ] ]s were brought to new levels of maturity and complexity after the Tang Dynasty, and social elites gathered to view art, share their own, and make trades of precious artworks. ]s such as ] and ] reinvigorated Confucianism with new commentary, infused ] ideals, and emphasized a new organization of classic texts that brought about the core doctrine of ]. | |||
| In 1271, the ] leader and the fifth ] of the ] ] established the ], with the last remnant of the Song Dynasty falling to the Yuan in 1279. A peasant named ] overthrew the Mongols in 1368 and founded the ]. Ming Dynasty thinkers such as ] would further critique and expand Neo-Confucianism with ideas of ] and innate morality that would have tremendous impact on later Japanese thought. ] also became a nominal vassal state of Ming China and adopted much of its Neo-Confucian bureaucratic structure. China's capital was moved from ] to ] during the early Ming Dynasty. The Ming fell to the ] in 1644, who then established the ]. An estimated 25 million people died during the Manchu conquest of the Ming Dynasty (1616–1644).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat0.htm#Manchu17c|title=Twentieth Century Atlas - Historical Body Count}}</ref> | |||
| The Qing Dynasty, which lasted until 1912, was the last dynasty in China. In the 19th century the Qing Dynasty adopted a defensive posture towards European ], even though it engaged in ] expansion into Central Asia itself. At this time China awoke to the significance of the rest of the world, in particular the West. As China opened up to foreign trade and missionary activity, ] produced by ] was forced onto Qing China. Two ]s with Britain weakened the Emperor's control. | |||
| One result was the ], which lasted from 1851 to 1862. It was led by ], who was partly influenced by a misinterpretation of ]. Hong believed himself to be the son of ] and the younger brother of ]. Although the Qing forces were eventually victorious, the civil war was one of the bloodiest in human history, costing at least twenty million lives (more than the total number of fatalities in the ]), with some estimates of up to two hundred million. Other costly rebellions followed the Taiping Rebellion, such as the ] (1855–1867), ] (1851–1868), ] (1862–1877), ] (1856–1873) and the Miao Rebellion (1854–1873).<ref>Jenks, R.D. Insurgency and Social Disorder in Guizhou: The Miao ‘Rebellion’, 1854–1873. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. 1994. </ref><ref>Cf. William J. Peterson, ''The Cambridge History of China Volume 9'' (Cambridge University Press, 2002)</ref> These rebellions resulted in an estimated loss of several million lives each and led to disastrous results for the economy and the countryside.<ref>Damsan Harper, Steve Fallon, Katja Gaskell, Julie Grundvig, Carolyn Heller, Thomas Huhti, Bradley Maynew, Christopher Pitts. Lonely Planet China. 9. 2005. ISBN 1-74059-687-0</ref><ref name=chineseciv>Gernet, Jacques. A History of Chinese Civilization. 2. ]: Cambridge University Press, 1996.</ref><ref> Perry, Elizabeth. Rebels and Revolutionaries in Northern China, 1845–1945 (Stanford, CA: Stanford UP, 1980). </ref> The flow of British opium hastened the empire's decline. | |||
| ] at night; the palace served as the residence for the imperial family since the reign of the ] of the ] in the 15th century, up until the fall of the ] in 1912.]] | |||
| While China was wracked by continuous war, ] succeeded in rapidly modernizing its military and set its sights on Korea and Manchuria. Influenced by Japan, ] declared independence from Qing China's ] in 1894, leading to the ], which resulted in the Qing Dynasty's cession of both Korea and ] to Japan. Following these series of defeats, ] for the empire to become a modern Meiji-style ] was drafted by the ] in 1898, but was opposed and stopped by the ], who placed Emperor Guangxu under house arrest in a coup d'état. Further destruction followed the ill-fated 1900 ] against westerners in ]. By the early 20th century, mass civil disorder had begun, and calls for reform and revolution were heard across the country. The 38-year-old Emperor Guangxu died under house arrest on 14 November 1908, suspiciously just a day before Cixi's own death. With the throne empty, he was succeeded by Cixi's handpicked heir, his two year old nephew ], who became the Xuantong Emperor, '''the last Chinese emperor'''. Guangxu's consort, who became the ], signed the abdication decree as regent in 1912, ending two thousand years of imperial rule in China. She died, childless, in 1913. | |||
| ===Republic of China (1912–1949)=== | |||
| {{main|History of the Republic of China}} | |||
| On 1 January 1912, the ] was established, heralding the end of the ]. ] of the ] (the KMT or Nationalist Party) was proclaimed provisional president of the republic. However, the presidency was later given to ], a former Qing general, who had ensured the defection of the entire ] from the Qing Empire to the revolution. In 1915, Yuan proclaimed himself ] but was forced to abdicate and return the ] to a republic when he realized it was an unpopular move, not only with the population but also with his own Beiyang Army and its commanders. | |||
| ] | |||
| After Yuan Shikai's death in 1916, China was politically fragmented, with an internationally recognized but virtually powerless national government seated in ] (modern day Beijing). Warlords in various regions exercised actual control over their respective territories. In the late 1920s, the ], under ], was able to reunify the country under its own control, moving the nation's capital to ] (modern day Nanjing) and implementing "political tutelage", an intermediate stage of political development outlined in Sun Yat-sen's program for transforming China into a modern, democratic state. Effectively, political tutelage meant one-party rule by the Kuomintang. | |||
| The ] (part of ]) forced an uneasy alliance between the ] and the ] as well as causing around 10 million Chinese civilian deaths. With the ] in 1945, China emerged victorious but financially drained. The continued distrust between the Nationalists and the Communists led to the resumption of the ]. In 1947, constitutional rule was established, but because of the ongoing Civil War many provisions of the ROC constitution were never implemented on the mainland. | |||
| ===People's Republic of China and Republic of China (1949–present)=== | |||
| {{Chinese/China/Map}} | |||
| {{main|History of the People's Republic of China|Republic of China on Taiwan}} | |||
| {{see also|History of Hong Kong|History of Macau|History of Taiwan}} | |||
| After its victory in the ], the ] (CCP) led by ] gained control of most of Mainland China. On 1 October 1949, they established the People's Republic of China as a Socialist State headed by a "Democratic Dictatorship" with the CCP as the only legal political party, thus, laying claim as the ] of the ROC. The central government of the Chinese Nationalist Party led by Chiang Kai-shek was forced to retreat to the island of ] that it had occupied at the end of World War II and moved the ROC government there. Major armed hostilities ceased in 1950 but no peace treaty has been signed. | |||
| Beginning in the late 1970s, the Republic of China began the implementation of full, multi-party, ] in the territories still under its control (], and a number of smaller islands including ] and ]). Today, the ROC has active political participation by all sectors of society. The main cleavage in ROC politics is the issue of eventual political unification with the Chinese mainland vs. formal independence of Taiwan. | |||
| After the Chinese Civil War, mainland China underwent a series of disruptive ] movements starting in the late 1950s with the ] and continuing in the 1960s with the ] that left much of its education system and economy in shambles. With the death of its first generation Communist Party leaders such as ] and ], the PRC began implementing a series of political and economic reforms advocated by ] that eventually formed the foundation for mainland China's rapid economic development starting in the 1990s. | |||
| Post-1978 reforms on the mainland have led to some relaxation of control over many areas of society. However, the PRC government still has almost absolute control over politics, and it continually seeks to eradicate what it perceives as threats to the social, political and economic stability of the country. Examples include the fight against ], jailing of ] and ], custody ] of the press, regulation of religion, and suppression of independence/secessionist movements. In 1989, the ] at ] were violently put to an end by the Chinese military after 15 days of martial law. In 1997, ] was returned to the PRC by the United Kingdom, and in 1999, ] was returned by ]. | |||
| Today, ] is administered by the ]—a one-party state under the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party—while the island of ] and surrounding islands are administered by the ]—a democratic multi-party state. After the founding of the People's Republic in 1949, both states claimed to be the sole legitimate ruler of all of "China". After the Kuomintang retreat to ] in 1949, the ] had maintained official diplomatic relations with most states around the world, but by the 1970s, a shift had occurred in international diplomatic circles and the ] gained the upper hand in international diplomatic relations and recognition count. In 1971, under ], the representatives of Chiang Kai-shek to the ] were expelled from the intergovernmental organization. With the expulsion of the ]'s representatives, and effectively the ], the representatives of the ] were invited to assume China's seat on the ], the ] and other ] councils and agencies. Later attempts by the ] to rejoin the UN have either been blocked by the ], which has veto power on the ], or rejected by the ] or a ] committee responsible for the General Assembly's agenda.<ref>{{cite web | |||
| |url= http://www.cbc.ca/world/story/2007/09/19/taiwan-un.html | |||
| |title= Taiwan's 15th bid for UN membership rejected | |||
| |accessdate= 2008-08-09 | |||
| |author= CBC News | |||
| |date= 2007-09-19 | |||
| }}</ref> | |||
| Since the relocation of its capital to Taiwan, the Republic of China has not formally renounced its claim to all of China, nor has it changed its official maps, which includes the ] and ]. Following the introduction to full democracy, and the electoral victory of the ]'s ] in the presidential elections, the ROC had adopted a policy of separating the state's identity from "China", while moving towards identifying the state as "Taiwan". However, the ROC has not made any formal moves to change the name, flag, or national anthem of the state to reflect a Taiwanese identity due to the lack of consensus within Taiwan, pressure from the United States and the fear of invasion or military action from the People's Republic of China against the island. The Republic of China during the DPP years did not actively pursue its claims on mainland China or Mongolia, however following the electoral victory of the KMT's ] as president, the claim to mainland China has been reinstated.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ma refers to China as ROC territory in magazine interview|publisher=Taipei Times|date=2008-10-08|url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2008/10/08/2003425320}}</ref> The People's Republic of China claims to have succeeded the Republic of China as the sole legitimate governing authority of all of China, which, from the official viewpoint of the People's Republic of China, includes the island of ]. Over the last 50 years, both the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China have used diplomatic and economic means to compete for recognition in the international arena. Because most international, intergovernmental organizations observe the ] of the People's Republic of China, the PRC has been able to pressure organizations, such as the ] and the ], to refuse to officially recognize the Republic of China. Due to the One-China policy, states around the world are pressured to refuse, or to cut off, diplomatic relations with the Republic of China. As a result, only ] currently maintain official diplomatic relations with the Republic of China, while the vast majority of U.N. member states maintain official diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China. | |||
| ==Territory and environment== | |||
| ===Historical political divisions=== | |||
| {{main|History of the political divisions of China}} | |||
| ] | |||
| Top-level political divisions of China have altered as administrations changed. Top levels included ] and ]. Below that, there have been ], ]s, ], ], ], and ]. Recent divisions also include ], ], ] and ]. | |||
| Most Chinese dynasties were based in the historical heartlands of China, known as ]. Various dynasties also ] into peripheral territories like ], ], ], and ]. The ]-established ] and its successors, the ROC and the PRC, incorporated these territories into the Chinese empire. | |||
| ===Geography and climate=== | |||
| {{main|Geography of China}} | |||
| {{seealso|Environment of China}} | |||
| ] | |||
| China ranges from mostly ] and ] in the west to lower lands in the east. Principal ]s flow from west to east, including the ] (central), the ] (Yellow river, north-central), and the ] (northeast), and sometimes toward the south (including the ], ], and ]), with most Chinese rivers emptying into the ]. | |||
| In the east, along the shores of the ] and the ] there are extensive and densely populated ] plains. On the edges of the Inner Mongolian plateau in the north, grasslands can be seen. Southern China is dominated by hills and low ]s. In the central-east are the ] of China's two major rivers, the ] and ]. Most of China's arable lands lie along these rivers, and they were the centers of China's major ancient civilizations. Other major rivers include the ], ], ] and ]. Yunnan Province is considered a part of the Greater Mekong Subregion, which also includes Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam.<ref> published by </ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| In the west, the north has a great alluvial plain, and the south has a vast ] ] traversed by ] ranges of moderate elevation, and the ]s, containing Earth's highest point, ]. The northwest also has high plateaus with more arid ] landscapes such as the ] and the ], which has been expanding. During many dynasties, the southwestern border of China has been the high ]s and deep valleys of ], which separate modern China from ], ] and ]. | |||
| The ] formations of China, excepting only the upper part of the ] system, are ], while the ] and ] deposits are ] and ], or else of terrestrial origin. Groups of ] cones occur in the Great Plain of north China. In the ] and ] Peninsulas, there are ]ic plateaus. | |||
| The ] of China varies greatly. The northern zone (containing Beijing) has summer daytime temperatures of more than 30 degrees Celsius and winters of ] severity. The central zone (containing ]) has a ] ] with very hot summers and cold winters. The southern zone (containing ]) has a ] climate with very hot summers and mild winters. | |||
| Due to a prolonged ] and poor agricultural practices, ]s have become usual in the spring in China.<ref>. BBC news. Accessed 17 April 2006.</ref> Dust has blown to southern China and Taiwan, and has reached the West Coast of the United States. Water, ], and ] have become important issues in China's relations with other countries. | |||
| ==Economy== | |||
| {{main|Economic history of China}} | |||
| {{see also|Economy of the People's Republic of China|Economy of the Republic of China}} | |||
| ==Society== | |||
| ===Culture=== | |||
| {{main|Culture of China}} | |||
| {{see also|Chinese law|Chinese philosophy|Confucianism}} | |||
| Confucianism was the official philosophy throughout most of ]'s history, and mastery of Confucian texts was the primary criterion for ]. China's traditional values were derived from various versions of ]. A number of more ] strains of thought have also been influential, such as ]. There was often conflict between the philosophies, e.g. the ] ] believed ] departed from the original spirit of Confucianism. Examinations and a ] remain greatly valued in China today. In recent years, a number of ] (not to be confused with Neo-Confucianism) have advocated that democratic ideals and human rights are quite compatible with traditional Confucian "Asian values".<ref>Bary, Theodore de. {{cite web |url=http://www.columbia.edu/cu/ccba/cear/issues/fall97/graphics/special/debary/debary.htm |title="Constructive Engagement with Asian Values" |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20050311041507/http://www.columbia.edu/cu/ccba/cear/issues/fall97/graphics/special/debary/debary.htm |archivedate=2005-03-11}}. Columbia University.</ref> | |||
| ], a highly influential ].]] | |||
| With the rise of Western ] and ] power beginning in the mid-19th century, non-Chinese systems of social and political organization gained adherents in China. Some of these would-be reformers totally rejected China's cultural legacy, while others sought to combine the strengths of Chinese and Western cultures. In essence, the history of 20th-century China is one of experimentation with new systems of social, ], and economic organization that would allow for the reintegration of the nation in the wake of dynastic collapse. | |||
| ====Arts, scholarship, and literature==== | |||
| {{main|Chinese art|History of Chinese art}}{{see also|Chinese art|Chinese painting|Chinese paper art|Chinese calligraphy|Chinese poetry|Cinema of China|Music of China}}] by ], ], ca. 1100 CE]]]'', a 20th century reprint of a ] imperial edition. ]]]s have had many variants and styles throughout Chinese history. Tens of thousands of ancient written documents are still extant, from ] to Qing edicts. This literary emphasis affected the general perception of cultural refinement in China, e.g. the view that ] was a higher art form than painting or drama. Manuscripts of the Classics and religious texts (mainly ], ], and ]) were handwritten by ]. Calligraphy later became commercialized, and works by famous artists became prized possessions.] has a long past; the earliest classic work in Chinese, the '']'' or "Book of Changes" dates to around 1000 BCE. A flourishing of philosophy during the ] produced such noteworthy works as Confucius's '']'' and ]'s '']''. (See also: the ].) Dynastic histories were often written, beginning with ]'s seminal '']'', which was written from 109 BCE to 91 BCE. The Tang Dynasty witnessed a ] flowering, while the ] of Chinese literature were written during the Ming and Qing Dynasties.] in the form of ] was developed during the ]. Academies of scholars sponsored by the empire were formed to comment on the classics in both printed and handwritten form. Royalty frequently participated in these discussions as well. The Song Dynasty was also a period of great scientific literature, and saw the creation of works such as ]'s ''Xin Yixiang Fayao'' and ]'s '']''. There were also enormous works of historiography and large encyclopedias, such as ]'s '']'' of 1084 CE or the '']'' fully compiled and edited by the 11th century.For centuries, religious and social advancement in China could be achieved through high performance on the ]s. This led to the creation of a ], although success was available only to males who could afford test preparation. Imperial examinations required applicants to write essays and demonstrate mastery of the Confucian classics. Those who passed the highest level of the exam became elite scholar-officials known as ''jinshi,'' a highly esteemed socio-economic position.Chinese philosophers, writers and poets were highly respected and played key roles in preserving and promoting the culture of the empire. Some classical scholars, however, were noted for their daring depictions of the lives of the common people, often to the displeasure of authorities.The Chinese invented numerous ]s, such as the ] (zither with movable bridges), ] (bridgeless zither), ]<!--Note: the sheng was most likely an adapted instrument; adapted from non-Han peoples of mainland Southeast Asia (although the Chinese version of the instruments differs from the Southeast Asian ones). As such it should be listed as an "adapted"/"adopted"--> (free reed mouth organ), and ] (vertical flute) and adopted and developed others such the ] (alto fiddle or bowed lute) and ] (pear-shaped plucked lute), many of which later spread throughout ] and ], particularly to Japan, Korea, and Vietnam. | |||
| ==Demography== | |||
| {{main|Ethnic groups in Chinese history|Ethnic minorities in China}} | |||
| ] and the ].]] | |||
| Hundreds of ] have existed in China throughout its history. The largest ethnic group in China by far is the ]. This group, however, is internally diverse and can be further divided into smaller ethnic groups that share similar traits. | |||
| Over the last three millennia, many previously distinct ethnic groups in China have been ] into a Han identity, which over time dramatically expanded the size of the Han population. However, these assimilations were usually incomplete, and vestiges of indigenous language and culture still often remain in various regions of China. Because of this, many within the Han identity have maintained distinct linguistic and cultural traditions while still identifying as Han. Several ethnicities have also dramatically shaped Han culture, e.g. the Manchurian clothing called the ] became the new "Chinese" fashion after the 17th century, replacing earlier Han styles of clothing such as the ]. The modern term ] (''Zhonghua Minzu'') is now used to describe a notion of a Chinese nationality that transcends ethnic divisions. | |||
| ===Languages=== | |||
| {{main|Languages of China}} | |||
| Most languages in China belong to the ] language family, spoken by 29 ethnicities. There are also several major '']'' within the ] itself. The most spoken dialects are ] (spoken by over 70% of the population), ] (Shanghainese), <!--Shanghainese is the common name for the Wu dialects. Please do not remove. Western sinologists and linguists use the term "Shanghainese" to generalize the Wu dialects. This is identical to Cantonese (Guangzhou-hua) being used to generalize the diverse Yue dialects.--> ] (Cantonese), ], ], ], and ]. Non-Sinitic languages spoken widely by ethnic minorities include ] (Thai), ], ], ] (Turkic), ] and ].<ref name=language>. 2005. GOV.cn. ''URL accessed 3 May 2006.''</ref> | |||
| ] was the written standard in China for thousands of years, and allowed for written communication between speakers of various unintelligible languages and dialects in China. ] or ''baihua'' is the written standard based on the Mandarin dialect first popularized in Ming dynasty ], and was adopted (with significant modifications) during the early 20th century as the national vernacular. Classical Chinese is still part of the high school curriculum and is thus intelligible to some degree to many Chinese. | |||
| ===Religion=== | |||
| ] (618–907) sculpture of the ] seated in ].]] | |||
| {{main|Religion in China}} | |||
| The "official" orthodox faith system held by most dynasties of China until the overthrow of the last dynasty is a ] system, centering on the worship of "]" or '']'' (literally "Emperor Above") as an omnipotent force{{Fact|date=December 2007}}. This faith system pre-dated the development of ] and ] and the introduction of ] and ]. It has features of a ] in that Heaven is seen as an omnipotent entity, endowed with personality but no corporeal form. Worship of Heaven includes the erection of shrines, the last and greatest being the ] in Beijing, and the offering of prayers. Manifestation of the powers of Heaven include weather and natural disasters. Although its popularity gradually diminished after the advent of Taoism and Buddhism, among other religions, some of its concepts remained in use throughout the pre-modern period and have been incorporated in later religions of China. | |||
| ] is an indigenous religion of China and its beginnings are traditionally traced to the composition of ]'s '']'' (''The Book of Tao and Its Virtues'') or to seminal works by ]. The philosophy of Taoism is centered on "]"; an understanding of which can be likened to recognizing the true nature of the universe. Taoism in its unorganized form is also considered a folk religion of China. More secular derivatives of Taoist ideas include ], Sun Tzu's '']'', and ]. | |||
| ] was first introduced from India and ] during the ] and became very popular among Chinese of all walks of life, embraced particularly by commoners, and sponsored by emperors in certain dynasties. ] (大乘, ''Dacheng'') is the predominant form of Buddhism practiced in China, where it was largely ] and later exported to Korea, Japan and Vietnam. Some subsets of Mahayana popular in China include ] (]) and ]. Buddhism is the largest organized faith in China and the country has the most Buddhist adherents in the world. Many Chinese, however, identify themselves as both Taoist and Buddhist at the same time. | |||
| ] is a major religious theme shared among all Chinese religions. Traditional Chinese culture, Taoism, Confucianism, and Chinese Buddhism all value ], or a love and respect for one's parents and ancestors, as one of the most important ]s. Chinese people generally offer prayers and food for their ancestors, light ] and candles, and burn offerings of ]. These activities are typically conducted at the site of ancestral graves or tombs, at an ancestral temple, or at a household shrine. | |||
| ] has developed since at least the 7th century AD with the introduction of the ]. Christianity began to make significant inroads in China after the 16th century through ] and later ] ]. The ] was influenced to some degree by Christian teachings, and the ] was in part a reaction against Christianity in China. | |||
| ] dates to a mission in 651, eighteen years after ]'s death. Muslims came to China for trade, dominating the import/export industry during the ].<ref name=bbc>BBC Islam in China (650-present) </ref><ref name=islamicculture>{{cite web|url=http://www.religion-online.org/showchapter.asp?title=1656&C=1645|title=Islamic culture in China}}</ref> They became influential in government circles, including ], ] and ], who designed the Yuan Dynasty's capital, ]. ] became an important center of Islamic study.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hsais.org/2essay0405_4.htm|title=Looking East: The challenges and opportunities of Chinese Islam}}</ref> The ] waged war and ] against Muslims in the ] and ].<ref>Levene, Mark. Genocide in the Age of the Nation-State. I.B.Tauris, 2005. ISBN 1845110579, page 288</ref><ref>Giersch, Charles Patterson. Asian Borderlands: The Transformation of Qing China's Yunnan Frontier. Harvard University Press, 2006. ISBN 1845110579, page 219</ref><ref>Dillon, Michael. . Curzon, 1999. ISBN 0700710264, page xix</ref> | |||
| ] is dates to as early as the 7th or 8th century ]. In the first half of the 20th century, many ] arrived in ] and ] during those cities' periods of economic expansion, seeking refuge from ]. Shanghai was notable for its volume of Jewish refugees, as it was the only port in the world to accept them without an entry visa. | |||
| ==Sports and recreation== | |||
| ], a popular traditional Chinese sport.]] | |||
| {{main|Sports in China}}''For sports in the current ROC controlled region see ].'' | |||
| Many historians <!-- weasel words --> believe that ] originated in China, where a form of the sport may have appeared around 1000 CE.<ref>. 2000. Athleticscholarships.net. Accessed 23 April 2006.</ref> Other popular sports include ], ], ], and more recently, ]. ] is now popular among young people in urban centers. | |||
| There are also many traditional sports. Chinese ] occurs during the ]. In ], Mongolian-style wrestling and ] are popular. In ], archery and ] are part of traditional festivals.<ref>Qinfa, Ye. . About.com. Retrieved 21 April 2006.</ref> | |||
| ] is highly regarded. It is common for the elderly to practice ] and ] in parks. | |||
| ] such as ], ] (Weiqi), and ] (Chinese chess) are also common and have organized formal competitions. | |||
| The capital city of the ], ], hosted the ], a major international sporting event. | |||
| ==Science and technology== | |||
| ], 2nd century BCE.]] | |||
| {{main|History of science and technology in China}} | |||
| {{see|List of Chinese inventions|List of Chinese discoveries}} | |||
| Among the technological accomplishments of ] were ] (not ]) and ], ] and ] ], the early lodestone and needle ], ], ], early ] detectors, ]es, ]s, the double-action ], ] and ], the ] ], the multi-tube ], the ], ] as fuel, the ] mechanism for ]s, the ] for the ], the ]-powered ], the hydraulic-powered ], the mechanical ], the mechanical ], the ], the ], the ], the ], the ], the ], etc. Chinese ] were among the first to record observations of a ]. The work of the astronomer ] (1031–1095) alone was most impressive, as he theorized that the sun and moon were spherical, corrected the position of the ] with his improved sighting tube, discovered the concept of ], wrote of ]s such as ], and compared the ]al paths of the planets to points on the shape of a rotating ] leaf. With evidence for them, he also postulated ] theories for the processes of land formation in ] and ] in ]. Other important astronomers included ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ]. ] evolved independently of ] and is therefore of great interest in the ]. The Chinese were also keen on documenting all of their technological achievements, such as in the ''Tiangong Kaiwu'' ] written by ] (1587–1666). | |||
| China's ] and ] had fallen behind that of ] by the 17th century. Political, social and cultural reasons have been given for this, although recent historians focus more on economic causes, such as the ]. Since the PRC's market reforms, China has become better connected to the global economy and is placing greater emphasis on science and technology. | |||
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| ==References== | |||
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