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| They are bastards. Fungus is possibly the most ANNOYING thing to learn. | |||
| {{Taxobox | |||
| | color = lightblue | |||
| | name = Fungi | |||
| | fossil_range = Early ] - Recent | |||
| | image = Amanita muscaria 01.jpg | |||
| | image_width = 200px | |||
| | image_caption = '']'', a ] | |||
| | domain = ] | |||
| | regnum = '''Fungi''' | |||
| | regnum_authority = ], 1753 | |||
| | subdivision_ranks = Divisions | |||
| | subdivision = | |||
| ]<br/> | |||
| ]<br/> | |||
| ]<br> | |||
| ]<br/> | |||
| ]<br/> | |||
| ] | |||
| }} | |||
| {{For|the fictional character|Fungus the Bogeyman}} | |||
| The '''fungi''' (singular '''fungus''') are a ] of ] ]s. They are ] and digest their food externally, absorbing ] ]s into their ]s. ], ], and ] are examples of fungi. The branch of ] involving the study of fungi is known as ]. | |||
| I hate you fungus. | |||
| Fungi often have important ] relationships with other organisms. ] symbiosis between ] and fungi is particularly important; over 90% of all plant species engage in some kind of mycorrhizal relationship with fungi and are dependent upon this relationship for survival.<ref>{{cite web | |||
| | last = Volk | |||
| | first = Tom | |||
| | title = Tom Volk's Fungi FAQ | |||
| | url=http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/toms_fungi/faq.html | |||
| | accessdate = 2006-09-21}}, University of Wisconsin, Department of Botany, "Even more important are the mushrooms that are associated with trees as mycorrhizae. Without this mutualistic association most trees would not survive. Killing these fungi would effectively kill your trees."</ref> <ref>{{cite web | |||
| | last = Wong | |||
| | first = George | |||
| | title = Symbiosis: Mycorrhizae and Lichens | |||
| | url=http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculty/wong/BOT135/Lect26.htm | |||
| | accessdate = 2006-09-21}}, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Botany Department, " in practically all plants with the exception of the Brassicaceae; The Crucifer Family; Chenopodiaceae, The Goosefoot Family; Cyperaceae; The Sedge Family and in aquatic plants. All other families form mycorrhizae. It is believed that for many plants that usually form mycorrhizae, they would be unable to survive in their natural habitat without this symbiotic relationship."</ref> Fungi are also used extensively by humans: ]s are responsible for ] of ] and ], and ] farming and gathering is a large industry in many countries. | |||
| Fungi and ] are the primary ] of organic matter in most terrestrial ]s. <br><br> | |||
| ==Phylogeny and classification of fungi== | |||
| Fungi were originally classified as ]s, however they have since been separated as they are ]s. This means they do not fix their own carbon through ], but use carbon fixed by other organisms for ]. Fungi are now thought to be more closely related to ]s than to plants, and are placed with animals in the ] group of ]s. For much of the ] Era, the fungi appear to be aquatic. The first land fungi probably appeared in the ], right after the first land plants appeared, even though their ]s are fragmentary. Fungi absorb their food while animals ] it; also unlike animals, the cells of fungi have ]s. For these reasons, these organisms are placed in their own ], '''Fungi'''. | |||
| PS: LOL | |||
| The Fungi are a ] group, meaning all varieties of fungi come from a common ancestor. The monophyly of the fungi has been confirmed through repeated tests of ]; shared ancestral traits include ] cell walls and heterotrophy by absorption, along with other shared characteristics. | |||
| The ] of the Fungi is in a state of rapid flux at present, especially due to recent papers based on DNA comparisons, which often overturn the assumptions of the older systems of classification.<ref>See for an introduction to fungal taxonomy, including recent controversies.</ref> There is no unique generally accepted system at the higher taxonomic levels and there are constant name changes at every level, from species upwards. Web sites such as ], ] and ] define preferred up-to-date names (with cross-references to older synonyms), but do not always agree with each other or with names in Misplaced Pages in its various language variants. | |||
| ===Types of fungi=== | |||
| The major divisions (]) of fungi are mainly classified based on their sexual ] structures. Currently, five divisions are recognized: | |||
| * The ] are commonly known as chytrids. These fungi produce zoospores that are capable of moving on their own through liquid menstrua by simple ]. | |||
| * The ] are known as zygomycetes and reproduce sexually with meiospores called zygospores and asexually with sporangiospores. ] (''Rhizopus stolonifer'') is a common species that belongs to this group; another is '']'', which shoots specialized structures through the air for several meters. Medically relevant genera include ''Mucor'', ''Rhizomucor'', and ''Rhizopus''. ] investigation has shown the zygomycota to be a ] group. | |||
| * Members of the ] are also known as the ] fungi. Only one species has been observed forming zygospores; all other species only reproduce asexually. This is an ancient association, with evidence dating to 350 million years ago. | |||
| * The ], commonly known as sac fungi or ascomycetes, form meiotic spores called ascospores, which are enclosed in a special sac-like structure called an ]. This division includes ]s, some ]s and ]s, as well as single-celled ]s and many species that have only been observed undergoing asexual reproduction. Because the products of meiosis are retained within the sac-like ascus, several ascomyctes have been used for elucidating principles of genetics and heredity (e.g. '']''). | |||
| * Members of the ], commonly known as the club fungi or basidiomycetes, produce meiospores called ]s on club-like stalks called ]. Most common ]s belong to this group, as well as ] and ], which are major pathogens of grains. | |||
| Although the ]s and ]s have traditionally been placed in kingdom Fungi and are still studied by mycologists, they are not true fungi. Unlike true fungi, the water moulds and slime moulds do not have cell walls made of ]. In the ], they are currently placed in kingdom ]a. Water moulds are descended from algae, and are placed within the phylum ], within the Kingdom Protista. | |||
| ==Structure== | |||
| ] | |||
| Fungi may be single-celled or multicellular. Multicellular fungi are composed of networks of long hollow tubes called ]. The hyphae often aggregate in a dense network known as a ]. The mycelium grows through the medium on which the fungus feeds. Because fungi are embedded in the medium in which they grow, they are often not visible to the naked eye. | |||
| ] culture (ascomycetes)]] | |||
| Although fungi lack true organs, the mycelia of ascomycetes and basidiomycetes may become organized into more complex reproductive structures called ], or sporocarps, when conditions are right. "]" is the common name given to the above-ground fruiting bodies of many fungal species. Although these above-ground structures are the most conspicuous to humans, they make up only a small portion of the entire fungal body. Some fungi form ]s, which are underground root-like structures that provide support and transport nutrients from the soil to the rest of the mycelium. | |||
| A fungus of the species '']'' may be the largest organism on the planet. It was discovered in the ] in ], and its underground mycelial network covers an area of 8.9 km² (2200 acres)<ref> at the University of Wisconsin, Department of Botany. Accessed ] ].</ref>. Whether or not this is an actual individual organism is disputed: some tests have indicated that they have the same ]tic makeup <ref>Beale, Bob. ] ]. at Environment & Nature News, ABC Online. Accessed ] ].</ref>, but this does not exclude its being a ] of numerous smaller individuals. | |||
| ==Reproduction== | |||
| ], Costa Rica.]] | |||
| Fungi may reproduce sexually or asexually. In ], the ] are genetically identical to the “parent” organism (they are ]). During ], a mixing of ] occurs so that the offspring exhibit traits of both parents. Many species can use both strategies at different times, while others are apparently strictly sexual or strictly asexual. Sexual reproduction has not been observed in some fungi of the ] and ]. These are commonly referred to as Fungi imperfecti or ]. | |||
| Yeasts and other unicellular fungi can reproduce simply by ], or “pinching off” a new cell. Many multicellular species produce a variety of different asexual spores that are easily dispersed and resistant to harsh environmental conditions. When the conditions are right, these spores will ] and colonize new ]s. | |||
| Sexual reproduction in fungi is somewhat different from that of animals or plants, and each fungal division reproduces using different strategies. Fungi that are known to reproduce sexually all have a ] stage and a ] stage in their life cycles. Ascomycetes and basidiomycetes also go through a ] stage, in which the ] inherited by the two parents do not fuse right away, but remain separate in the hyphal cells (see ]). | |||
| In zygomycetes, the haploid hyphae of two compatible individuals fuse, forming a ], which becomes a resistant ]. When this zygospore germinates, it quickly undergoes ], generating new haploid hyphae and asexual ]s. These sporangiospores may then be distributed and germinate into new genetically-identical individuals, each producing their own haploid hyphae. When the hyphae of two compatible individuals come into contact with one another, they will fuse and generate new zygospores, thus completing the cycle. | |||
| In ascomycetes, when compatible haploid hyphae fuse with one another, their nuclei do not immediately fuse. The dikaryotic hyphae form structures called ] (''sing.'' ascus), in which ] (nuclear fusion) occurs. These asci are embedded in an ], or fruiting body, of the fungus. Karyogamy in the asci is followed immediately by meiosis and the production of ascospores. The ascospores are disseminated and germinate to form new haploid mycelium. Asexual ] may be produced by the haploid mycelium. Many ascomycetes appear to have lost the ability to reproduce sexually and reproduce only via conidia. | |||
| Sexual reproduction in basidiomycetes is similar to that of ascomycetes. Sexually compatible haploid hyphae fuse to produce a dikaryotic mycelium. This leads to the production of a ]. The most commonly-known basidiocarps are mushrooms, but they may also take many other forms. Club-like structures known as ] generate haploid ] following karyogamy and meiosis. These basidiospores then germinate to produce new haploid mycelia. | |||
| ==Ecological role== | |||
| ] growing on a tree in Borneo]] | |||
| Although often inconspicuous, fungi occur in every environment on ] and play very important roles in most ]. Along with bacteria, fungi are the major ] in most terrestrial (and some aquatic) ecosystems, and therefore play a critical role in ] and in many ]. | |||
| Many fungi are important as partners in ] relationships with other organisms, as ], ], or ], as well as in symbiotic relationships that do not fall neatly into any of these categories. One of the most critically important of these relationships are various types of ], which is a kind of mutualistic relationship between fungi and plants, in which the plant's roots are closely associated with fungal hyphae and other structures. The plant donates to the fungus sugars and other carbohydrates that it manufactures from photosynthesis, while the fungus donates water and mineral nutrients that the hyphal network is able to find much more efficiently than the plant roots alone can, particularly ]. The fungi also protect against diseases and pathogens and provide other benefits to the plant. Recently, plants have been found to use mycorrhizas to deliver carbohydrates and other nutrients to other plants in the same community and in some cases can make plant species that would normally exclude each other able to coexist in the same plant community. Such mycorrhizal communities are called "common mycorrhizal networks". Over 90% of the plant species on Earth are dependent on mycorrhizae of one type or another in order to survive, and it is hypothesized that the presence of terrestrial fungi may have been necessary in order for the first plants to colonize land. | |||
| ] are formed by a symbiotic relationship between ] or ] (referred to in lichens as "]") and fungi (mostly ascomycetes of various kinds and a few basidiomycetes), in which individual photobiont cells are embedded in a complex of fungal tissue. As in mycorrhizas, the photobiont provides sugars and other carbohydrates while the fungus provides minerals and water. The functions of both symbiotic organisms are so closely intertwined that they function almost as a single organism. | |||
| Certain insects also engage in mutualistic relationships with various types of fungi. Several groups of ants cultivate various fungi in the ] as their primary food source, while ] cultivate various kinds of fungi in the bark of trees that they infest. | |||
| Some fungi are parasites on plants, animals (including ]), and even other fungi. Pathogenic fungi are responsible for numerous ]s, such as ] and ] in humans and ] in plants. Some fungi are ] of ], which they capture using an array of devices such as constricting rings or adhesive nets . | |||
| ==Human uses of fungi== | |||
| Fungi have a long history of use by humans. Many types of ]s and other fungi are eaten, including ]s, ]s, and ]s. Of course, many ] of mushrooms are ]ous and are responsible for numerous cases of ] and ] every year. A type of single-celled fungus called ] is used in baking ] and fermenting ]s, while mycelial fungus is used to make ] (]) and ]. Fungi are also used to produce industrial chemicals like ], ] and even to make stonewashed ]. Some types of fungi are ingested for their ] properties, both ] and religiously (see main article, '']''). | |||
| ===Edible and poisonous fungi=== | |||
| Some of the most well-known types of fungi are the ] and ]. Many species are commercially raised, but others must be harvested from the wild. ]s (''Agaricus bisporus'') are the most commonly eaten species, used in salads, soups, and many other dishes. ] are the same species, but are allowed to grow to a much larger size. Other commercially-grown mushrooms that have gained in popularity in the West and are often available fresh in grocery stores include ] (''Volvariella volvacea''), ]s (''Pleurotus ostreatus''), ]s (''Lentinula edodes''), and ] (''Flammulina'' spp.). | |||
| ] | |||
| There are many more mushroom species that are ] for personal consumption or commercial sale. ], ]s, ]s, ], ], and ] mushrooms (also known as king boletes) all command a high price on the market. They are often used in gourmet dishes. | |||
| It is also a common practice to permit the growth of specific species of ] in certain types of cheeses that give them their unique flavor. This mold is non-toxic and is safe for human consumption. This accounts for the blue colour in cheeses such as ] or ]. | |||
| ], ''Amanita phalloides'']] | |||
| Hundreds of mushroom species are toxic to humans, causing anything from upset stomachs to ]s to death. Some of the most deadly belong to the genus '']'', including '']'' (the "destroying angel") and '']'' (the "death cap"). Stomach cramps, vomiting, and diarrhea usually occur within 6-24 hours after ingestion of these mushrooms, followed by a brief period of remission (usually 1-2 days). Patients often fail to present themselves for treatment at this time, assuming that they have recovered. However, within 2-4 weeks ] and ] failure leads to death if untreated. There is no antidote for the toxins in these mushrooms, but ] and administration of ] may help. In severe cases, a liver transplant may be necessary (Kaminstein 2002). It is difficult to identify a "safe" mushroom without proper training and knowledge, thus it is often advised to assume that a mushroom in the wild is poisonous and leave it alone. | |||
| ] mushrooms (''A. muscaria'') are also responsible for a large number of poisonings, but these cases rarely result in death. The most common symptoms are nausea and vomiting, drowsiness, and hallucinations. In fact, this species is used ritually and recreationally for its hallucinogenic properties. However, if it is taken in over a long period of time (regularly over more than six months), this species might cause a temporary loss of sight, which can last from several minutes to an hour. | |||
| ===Fungi in the biological control of pests=== | |||
| Many fungi compete with other organisms, or directly infect them. Some of these fungi are considered beneficial because they can restrict, and sometimes eliminate, the populations of noxious organisms like pest insects, ], ]s, ] and other fungi, such as those that kill plants. There is much interest on the manipulation of these beneficial fungi for the ] of pests. Some of these fungi can be used as ], like the ones that kill insects (]). Specific examples of fungi that have been developed as ]s are '']'', '']'', ], '']'', and '']'' (='']'' ). | |||
| ==Notes== | |||
| <div class="references-small"><references/></div> | |||
| ==References== | |||
| * Deacon JW. (2005). Fungal Biology (4th ed). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 1-4051-3066-0. | |||
| * Kaminstein D. (2002). . | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| * | |||
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| *, ''] Museum of Paleontology''. | |||
| *, ''], School of Biological Sciences'', June, 2004. – Online textbook | |||
| * – Online textbook | |||
| * – Online textbook | |||
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| * - Includes ''Index Fungorum'' genus and species names and top-down hierarchy | |||
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Revision as of 02:04, 16 November 2006
They are bastards. Fungus is possibly the most ANNOYING thing to learn.
I hate you fungus.
PS: LOL