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| '''HCV infections in children and pregnancy''' are less understood than in adults. Worldwide, the prevalence of ] infection in pregnant women and children has been estimated to 1-8% and 0.05-5% respectively.<ref name=Arshad2011>{{cite journal|vauthors=Arshad M, El-Kamary SS, Jhaveri R |year=2011 |title=Hepatitis C virus infection during pregnancy and the newborn period--are they opportunities for treatment? |journal=J Viral Hepat |volume=18|issue=4|pages=229–236 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2893.2010.01413.x |pmid=21392169}}</ref> The vertical ] has been estimated to be 3-5% and there is a high rate of spontaneous clearance (25-50%) in the children. Higher rates have been reported for both vertical transmission (18%, 6-36% and 41%).<ref name=Hunt1997>{{cite journal|vauthors=Hunt CM, Carson KL, Sharara AI |year=1997|title=Hepatitis C in pregnancy |journal=Obstet Gynecol |volume=89 |issue=5 Pt 2 |pages=883–890 }}</ref><ref name=Thomas1998>{{cite journal |vauthors=Thomas SL, Newell ML, Peckham CS, Ades AE, Hall AJ |year=1998 |title=A review of hepatitis C virus (HCV) vertical transmission: risks of transmission to infants born to mothers with and without HCV viraemia or human immunodeficiency virus infection |journal=Int J Epidemiol |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=108–117 |doi=10.1093/ije/27.1.108 |pmid=9563703}}</ref> and prevalence in children (15%).<ref name=Fischler2007>{{cite journal |author=Fischler B |year=2007 |title=Hepatitis C virus infection |journal=Semin Fetal Neonatal Med |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=168–173 |doi=10.1016/j.siny.2007.01.008 |pmid=17320495}}</ref> | '''HCV infections in children and pregnancy''' are less understood than in adults. Worldwide, the prevalence of ] infection in pregnant women and children has been estimated to 1-8% and 0.05-5% respectively.<ref name=Arshad2011>{{cite journal|vauthors=Arshad M, El-Kamary SS, Jhaveri R |year=2011 |title=Hepatitis C virus infection during pregnancy and the newborn period--are they opportunities for treatment? |journal=J Viral Hepat |volume=18|issue=4|pages=229–236 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2893.2010.01413.x |pmid=21392169}}</ref> The vertical ] has been estimated to be 3-5% and there is a high rate of spontaneous clearance (25-50%) in the children. Higher rates have been reported for both vertical transmission (18%, 6-36% and 41%).<ref name=Hunt1997>{{cite journal|vauthors=Hunt CM, Carson KL, Sharara AI |year=1997|title=Hepatitis C in pregnancy |journal=Obstet Gynecol |volume=89 |issue=5 Pt 2 |pages=883–890 }}</ref><ref name=Thomas1998>{{cite journal |vauthors=Thomas SL, Newell ML, Peckham CS, Ades AE, Hall AJ |year=1998 |title=A review of hepatitis C virus (HCV) vertical transmission: risks of transmission to infants born to mothers with and without HCV viraemia or human immunodeficiency virus infection |journal=Int J Epidemiol |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=108–117 |doi=10.1093/ije/27.1.108 |pmid=9563703}}</ref> and prevalence in children (15%).<ref name=Fischler2007>{{cite journal |author=Fischler B |year=2007 |title=Hepatitis C virus infection |journal=Semin Fetal Neonatal Med |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=168–173 |doi=10.1016/j.siny.2007.01.008 |pmid=17320495}}</ref> | ||
| In developed countries, transmission around the time of birth is now the leading cause of HCV infection. In the absence of virus in the mother's blood, transmission seems to be rare.<ref name="Thomas1998"/> Factors associated with an increased rate of infection include ] of longer than 6 hours before delivery and procedures exposing the infant to maternal blood.<ref name=Indolfi2009>{{cite journal |vauthors=Indolfi G, Resti M |year=2009 |title=Perinatal transmission of hepatitis C virus infection |journal=J Med Virol |volume=81 |issue=5 |pages=836–843 |doi=10.1002/jmv.21437 |pmid=19319981}}</ref> ]s are not recommended. ] is considered safe if the nipples are not damaged. Infection around the time of birth in one child does not increase the risk in a subsequent pregnancy. All genotypes appear to have the same risk of transmission. | In ], transmission around the time of birth is now the leading cause of HCV infection. In the absence of virus in the mother's blood, transmission seems to be rare.<ref name="Thomas1998"/> Factors associated with an increased rate of infection include ] of longer than 6 hours before delivery and procedures exposing the infant to maternal blood.<ref name=Indolfi2009>{{cite journal |vauthors=Indolfi G, Resti M |year=2009 |title=Perinatal transmission of hepatitis C virus infection |journal=J Med Virol |volume=81 |issue=5 |pages=836–843 |doi=10.1002/jmv.21437 |pmid=19319981}}</ref> ]s are not recommended. ] is considered safe if the nipples are not damaged. Infection around the time of birth in one child does not increase the risk in a subsequent pregnancy. All genotypes appear to have the same risk of transmission. | ||
| HCV infection is frequently found in children who have previously been presumed to have non-A, non-B ] and ] ].<ref name="González-Peralta1997">{{cite journal |author=González-Peralta RP |year=1997 |title=Hepatitis C virus infection in pediatric patients |journal=Clin Liver Dis |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=691–705 |doi=10.1016/s1089-3261(05)70329-9 |pmid=15560066}}</ref> The presentation in childhood may be asymptomatic or with elevated ].<ref name=Suskind2004>{{cite journal |vauthors=Suskind DL, Rosenthal P |title=Chronic viral hepatitis |journal=Adolesc Med Clin |volume=15 |issue=1|pages=145–58, x-xi |doi= 10.1016/j.admecli.2003.11.001|pmid=15272262}}</ref> While infection is commonly asymptomatic both ] with ] and ] may occur in childhood. | HCV infection is frequently found in children who have previously been presumed to have non-A, non-B ] and ] ].<ref name="González-Peralta1997">{{cite journal |author=González-Peralta RP |year=1997 |title=Hepatitis C virus infection in pediatric patients |journal=Clin Liver Dis |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=691–705 |doi=10.1016/s1089-3261(05)70329-9 |pmid=15560066}}</ref> The presentation in childhood may be asymptomatic or with elevated ].<ref name=Suskind2004>{{cite journal |vauthors=Suskind DL, Rosenthal P |title=Chronic viral hepatitis |journal=Adolesc Med Clin |volume=15 |issue=1|pages=145–58, x-xi |doi= 10.1016/j.admecli.2003.11.001|pmid=15272262}}</ref> While infection is commonly asymptomatic both ] with ] and ] may occur in childhood. | ||
Revision as of 00:14, 15 October 2019
HCV infections in children and pregnancy are less understood than in adults. Worldwide, the prevalence of hepatitis C virus infection in pregnant women and children has been estimated to 1-8% and 0.05-5% respectively. The vertical transmission rate has been estimated to be 3-5% and there is a high rate of spontaneous clearance (25-50%) in the children. Higher rates have been reported for both vertical transmission (18%, 6-36% and 41%). and prevalence in children (15%).
In developed countries, transmission around the time of birth is now the leading cause of HCV infection. In the absence of virus in the mother's blood, transmission seems to be rare. Factors associated with an increased rate of infection include membrane rupture of longer than 6 hours before delivery and procedures exposing the infant to maternal blood. Cesarean sections are not recommended. Breastfeeding is considered safe if the nipples are not damaged. Infection around the time of birth in one child does not increase the risk in a subsequent pregnancy. All genotypes appear to have the same risk of transmission.
HCV infection is frequently found in children who have previously been presumed to have non-A, non-B hepatitis and cryptogenic liver disease. The presentation in childhood may be asymptomatic or with elevated liver function tests. While infection is commonly asymptomatic both cirrhosis with liver failure and hepatocellular carcinoma may occur in childhood.
Diagnosis
Guidelines for the investigation of babies born to hepatitis C positive mothers have been published.
- In children born to hepatitis C virus antibody positive but hepatitis C virus RNA negative mothers, the alanine aminotransferase and hepatitis C virus antibodies should be investigated at 18-24 months of life. If both the alanine aminotransferase value is normal and hepatitis C virus antibody is not found, follow up should be interrupted.
- In children born to hepatitis C virus RNA positive mothers, alanine aminotransferase and hepatitis C virus RNA should be investigated at 3 months of age. Of these
- (1) hepatitis C virus RNA positive children should be considered infected if viremia is confirmed by a second assay performed by the 12th month of age
- (2) hepatitis C virus RNA negative children with abnormal alanine aminotransferase should be tested again for viremia at 6-12 months and for antibodies to the hepatitis C virus at 18 months
- (3) hepatitis C virus RNA negative children with normal alanine aminotransferase should be tested for antibodies to the hepatitis C virus and have their alanine aminotransferase reestimated at 18-24 months. They should be considered non infected if both the alanine aminotransferase is normal and the antibody levels to the hepatitis C virus are undetectable.
- The presence of anti hepatitis C virus antibody beyond the 18th month of age in a never viremic child with normal alanine aminotransferase is likely consistent with past hepatitis C virus infection.
Treatment
Treatment of children has been with interferon and ribavirin. The response to treatment is similar to that in adults. It shows a similar dependence on the genotype. Recurrence after transplant is universal and the outcomes after transplant are usually poor.
In children treatment should be initiated within 12 weeks of the detection of the viral RNA if viral clearance has not occurred within this time. Given the difficulties with establishing a diagnosis of hepatitis C infection in infancy, this recommendation does not apply to infants.
Both pegylated interferon and ribavirin are unsuitable for use in pregnancy and infancy: newer methods of treatment are urgently required.
References
- Arshad M, El-Kamary SS, Jhaveri R (2011). "Hepatitis C virus infection during pregnancy and the newborn period--are they opportunities for treatment?". J Viral Hepat. 18 (4): 229–236. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2893.2010.01413.x. PMID 21392169.
- Hunt CM, Carson KL, Sharara AI (1997). "Hepatitis C in pregnancy". Obstet Gynecol. 89 (5 Pt 2): 883–890.
- ^ Thomas SL, Newell ML, Peckham CS, Ades AE, Hall AJ (1998). "A review of hepatitis C virus (HCV) vertical transmission: risks of transmission to infants born to mothers with and without HCV viraemia or human immunodeficiency virus infection". Int J Epidemiol. 27 (1): 108–117. doi:10.1093/ije/27.1.108. PMID 9563703.
- Fischler B (2007). "Hepatitis C virus infection". Semin Fetal Neonatal Med. 12 (3): 168–173. doi:10.1016/j.siny.2007.01.008. PMID 17320495.
- Indolfi G, Resti M (2009). "Perinatal transmission of hepatitis C virus infection". J Med Virol. 81 (5): 836–843. doi:10.1002/jmv.21437. PMID 19319981.
- González-Peralta RP (1997). "Hepatitis C virus infection in pediatric patients". Clin Liver Dis. 1 (3): 691–705. doi:10.1016/s1089-3261(05)70329-9. PMID 15560066.
- Suskind DL, Rosenthal P. "Chronic viral hepatitis". Adolesc Med Clin. 15 (1): 145–58, x–xi. doi:10.1016/j.admecli.2003.11.001. PMID 15272262.
- Resti M, Bortolotti F, Vajro P, Maggiore G, Committee of Hepatology of the Italian Society of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2003). "Guidelines for the screening and follow-up of infants born to anti-HCV positive mothers". Dig Liver Dis. 35 (7): 453–457. doi:10.1016/s1590-8658(03)00217-2.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - Hu J, Doucette K, Hartling L, Tjosvold L, Robinson J (Jul 13, 2010). "Treatment of hepatitis C in children: a systematic review". PLoS ONE. 5 (7): e11542. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0011542. PMC 2903479.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - Serranti D, Buonsenso D, Ceccarelli M, Gargiullo L, Ranno O, Valentini P (2011). "Pediatric hepatitis C infection: to treat or not to treat...what's the best for the child?". Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 15 (9): 1057–1067.
- Rumbo C, Fawaz RL, Emre SH, Suchy FJ, Kerkar N, Morotti RA, Shneider BL (2006). "Hepatitis C in children: a quaternary referral center perspective". J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 43 (2): 209–216. doi:10.1097/01.mpg.0000228117.52229.32.
- Lagging M, Duberg AS, Wejstål R, Weiland O, Lindh M, Aleman S, Josephson F, Swedish Consensus Group (2012). "Treatment of hepatitis C virus infection in adults and children: updated Swedish consensus recommendations". Scand J Infect Dis. 44 (7): 502–521. doi:10.3109/00365548.2012.669045. PMC 4732459.
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