Misplaced Pages

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Ms Sarah Welch (talk | contribs) at 12:02, 20 April 2017 (clarify, c/e). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

The neutrality of this article is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until conditions to do so are met. (April 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

Mahavira
24th Jain Tirthankara
The idol of Mahavira at Shri Mahavirji, Rajasthan
Other names	Vīr, Ativīr, Vardhamāna, Sanmati, Nigaṇṭha Nātaputta
Predecessor	Parshvanatha
Symbol	Lion
Height	7 cubits (10.5 feet)
Age	72 years
Tree	Shala
Color	Golden
Genealogy
Born	unclear, c. 599 BC Kundalpur
Died	unclear, c. 527 BC Pawapuri
Parents	Siddhartha (father) Trishala (mother)

Part of a series on
Jainism
Jains History Timeline Index
Philosophy Anekantavada Cosmology Ahimsa Karma Dharma Mokṣa Kevala Jnana Dravya Tattva Brahmacarya Aparigraha Gunasthana Saṃsāra
EthicsEthics of Jainism Mahavratas (major vows) Ahiṃsā (non-violence) Satya (truth) Asteya (non-stealing) Brahmacarya (chastity) Aparigraha (non-possession) Anuvratas (further vows) Sāmāyika Sallekhana
Jain prayers Bhaktamara Stotra Micchami Dukkadam Navkar Mantra Ṇamōkāra mantra Jai Jinendra
Major figures The 24 Tirthankaras Rishabha Pārśva Mahavira Arihant Ganadhara Kundakunda Siddhasenadivākarasuri Samantabhadra Haribhadra Yashovijaya
Major sectsSchools and Branches Digambara Śvetāmbara
Jain literature Samayasāra (Digambara) Pravachanasara (Digambara) Agama (Śvetāmbara) Tattvartha Sutra Dravyasamgraha (Digambara) Kalpa Sūtra (Śvetāmbara) Uttaradhyayana (Śvetāmbara) Cīvaka Cintāmaṇi Silappatikaram Valayapathi
Festivals Diwali Mahavir Janma Kalyanak Paryushana Samvatsari
PilgrimagesTirth Abu Palitana Girnar Shikharji Shravanabelagola
Other Ekendriya Temples Jain flag Jain symbols Parasparopagraho Jivanam Topics list
Religion portal
v t e

Mahavira (Mahāvīra), also known as Vardhamāna, was the twenty-fourth and last Jain Tirthankara (ford maker). In the Jain tradition, it is believed that Mahavira was born into a royal family in what is now Bihar, India, in 599 BC. At the age of 30, he left his home in pursuit of spiritual awakening, and abandoned worldly things, including his clothes, and became a Digambara monk. For the next twelve-and-a-half years, Mahavira practiced intense meditation and severe penance, after which he is believed to have attained Kevala Jnana (omniscience). Outside the Jain tradition, scholars consider his biographical details as uncertain, with some suggesting he lived in the 5th-century.

For the next 30 years, he travelled throughout the Indian subcontinent to teach Jain philosophy. Mahavira taught that the observance of the vows ahimsa (non-violence), satya (truth), asteya (non-stealing), brahmacharya (chastity) and aparigraha (non-attachment) is necessary to elevate the quality of life. He gave the principle of Anekantavada (pluralism), Syadvada and Nayavada. The teachings of Mahavira were compiled by Gautama Swami (his chief disciple) and were called Jain Agamas. Most of these Agamas are not available today. Jains believe Mahavira attained moksha (liberation from the cycle of birth and death) at the age of 72.

Titles and names

According to Jain texts, Mahavira's childhood name was Vardhamāna ("the one who grows"), because of the increased prosperity in the kingdom at the time of his birth. He was called Mahavira ("the great hero") because of the acts of bravery he performed during his childhood. Mahavira was given the title Jīnā ("the victor or conqueror of inner enemies such as attachment, pride and greed"), which later became synonymous with Tirthankara.

Buddhist texts refer to Mahavira as Nigaṇṭha Jñātaputta. Nigaṇṭha means "without knot, tie, or string" and Jñātaputta (son or scion of of Natas), refers to his clan of origin as Jñāta or Naya (Prakrit). He is also known as Sramana (seeker).

Historical Mahavira

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (April 2017)

Eary Buddhist texts refers to him as Nigaṇṭha Jñātaputta. As these are independent sources, they establish the historicity of Mahavira. These sources do not give any detail about life of Mahavira but says that he was the leader of Nigantha sect. The Buddhist sources also records his death.

Most modern historians agree he was born at Kundagrama, now Basokund in Muzaffarpur district in the state of Bihar, India.

In the Jain tradition, Mahavira was born in 599 BC. Some western historians date Mahavira to a later, such as his birth year to be 480 BC. He left his home to live as an ascetic when he was 28, did penance, and thereafter preached Jainism for a period of 30 years. His death is dated in 527 BC, while some western scholars place his death to around 425 BC, or 408 BC. The place of his death, Pavapuri (now in Bihar), is a pilgrimage for Jains.

Biography according to Jain texts

In Jainism, a Tirthankara (Maker of the River-Crossing, saviour, spiritual teacher) signifies the founder of a tirtha which means a fordable passage across the sea of interminable births and deaths (called saṃsāra). According to the Jain texts, twenty-four Tirthankaras lives on earth each half of the cosmic time cycle described in Jain cosmology. Mahavira was the last Tirthankara of Avasarpiṇī (present descending phase or half of the time cycle).

Mahavira is often called the founder of Jainism, but this was not the case because the Jain tradition recognizes his predecessors and he is considered the 24th and the last Tirthankara. In addition to that, Parshvanatha (23rd tirthankara) is accepted as a historical figure.

Sources

• Tiloya-paṇṇatti of Yativṛṣabha discusses almost all of the events connected with the life of Mahavira in a form convenient to memorise.
• Acharya Jinasena's Mahapurāṇa include Ādi purāṇa and Uttara-purāṇa. It was completed by his disciple Acharya Gunabhadra in the 8th century. In Uttara-purāṇa the life of Mahavira is described in three parvans (74–76) in 1818 verses.
• Vardhamacharitra is a Sanskrit kāvya (poem) that describe the life of Mahavira written by Asaga in 853.
• Kalpa Sūtra is biographies of the Jain Tirthankaras, notably Parshvanatha and Mahavira.
• Samavayanga Sutra is a collection of texts containing Lord Mahavira’s teachings
• Acharanga Sutra describes the penance of Mahavira.

Birth

Belonging to Kashyapa gotra, Mahavira was born into the royal Kshatriya family of King Siddhartha and Queen Trishala (sister of King Chetaka of Vaishali) of the Ikshvaku dynasty, on the thirteenth day of the rising moon of Chaitra in the Vira Nirvana Samvat calendar, in 599 BC according to Jain texts. In the Gregorian calendar, this date falls in March or April and is celebrated as Mahavir Jayanti by Jains. Traditionally, Kundalpur in the ancient city of Kashtriya Kund Lachhuar is regarded as his birthplace, in the present-day Sikandra Division of Jamui district, Bihar. According to Jainism, after his birth, anointment and abhisheka (consecration)—carried out by Indra on Mount Meru. Jain traditions date Mahavira as living from 599 B.C. to 527 B.C.

His height was seven cubits (10.5 feet) as per the description given in Aupapatika Sutra.

Early life

As the son of a king, Mahavira had all luxuries of life at his disposal. According to the second chapter of the Śvētāmbara text Acharanga Sutra, both his parents were followers of Parshvanatha and lay devotees of Jain ascetics. Jain traditions do not agree about his marital state; according to the Digambara tradition, Mahavira's parents wanted him to marry Yashoda but Mahavira refused to marry. According to the Śvētāmbara tradition, he was married to Yashoda at a young age and had one daughter, Priyadarshana.

Renunciation

At the age of thirty, Mahavira abandoned the comforts of royal life and left his home and family to live an ascetic life in the pursuit of spiritual awakening. He underwent severe penances, meditated under the Ashoka tree and discarded his clothes. There is a graphic description of his hardships and humiliation in the Acharanga Sutra. According to Kalpa Sūtra, Mahavira spent forty-two monsoons of his ascetic life at Astikagrama, Champapuri, Prstichampa, Vaishali, Vanijagrama, Nalanda, Mithila, Bhadrika, Alabhika, Panitabhumi, Shravasti and Pawapuri.

Omniscience

After twelve years of rigorous penance, at the age of 43, Mahavira achieved the state of Kevala Jnana (omniscience or infinite knowledge) under a Sāla tree according to traditional accounts. The details of this event are mentioned in Jain texts like Uttar-purāņa and Harivamśa-purāņa. The Acharanga Sutra describes Mahavira as all-seeing. The Sutrakritanga elaborates the concept as all-knowing and provides details of other qualities of Mahavira. Jains believe that Mahavira had the most auspicious body (paramaudārika śarīra) and was free from eighteen imperfections when he attained omniscience.

For thirty years after gaining omniscience, Mahavira travelled throughout in India to teach his philosophy. According to the Jain tradition, Mahavira had 14,000 muni (male ascetics), 36,000 aryika (nuns), 159,000 sravakas (laymen) and 318,000 sravikas (laywomen) as his followers. Some of the royal followers included King Srenika (popularly known as Bimbisara) of Magadha, Kunika of Anga and Chetaka of Videha. He delivered 55 pravachana and answered 36 unasked questions (Uttaraadhyayana-sutra).

Moksha (Nirvāṇa)

Jains believe Mahavira attained moksha (liberation from the cycle of birth and death) at the age of seventy-two and his soul is now resting in Siddhashila (abode of the liberated souls). According to Jain texts, Mahavira attained nirvana (final release) at the town of Pawapuri (now in Bihar). On the same day, his chief disciple Gautama Swami is said to have attained omniscience. This day is celebrated by Jains as Diwali. According to the Jinasena's Mahapurana, after the nirvana of Tīrthankaras, heavenly beings perform the funeral rites. According to the Pravachanasara, only the nails and hair of Tirthankaras are left behind; the rest of the body is dissolved in the air like camphor. Today, a Jain temple called Jal Mandir stands at the place where Mahavira is believed to have attained moksha.

Previous births

Mahavira's previous births are discussed in Jain texts such as the Mahapurana and Tri-shashti-shalaka-purusha-charitra. While a soul undergoes countless reincarnations in the transmigratory cycle of saṃsāra (world), the births of a Tirthankara are reckoned from the time he determined the causes of karma and developed the Ratnatraya. Jain texts discuss twenty-six births of Mahavira before his incarnation as a Tirthankara. As per the texts, Mahavira was born as Marichi, the son of Bharata Chakravartin, in one of his previous births.

Teachings

Jain Agamas

Mahavira's teachings were compiled by his Ganadhara (chief disciple), Gautama Swami. The sacred canonical scriptures had twelve parts. According to Vijay K. Jain, "These scriptures contained the most comprehensive and accurate description of every branch of learning that one needs to know. The knowledge contained in these scriptures was transmitted orally by the teachers to their disciple saints." According to the Digambaras, Āchārya Bhutabali was the last ascetic who had partial knowledge of the original canon. Later, some learned Āchāryas started to restore, compile and write down the teachings of Mahavira that were the subject matter of Agamas. Āchārya Dharasena, in first century CE, guided two Āchāryas, Āchārya Pushpadant and Āchārya Bhutabali, to write down these teachings. The two Āchāryas wrote on palm leaves, Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama—among the oldest known Digambara Jaina texts. Jain Agamas prescribe five major vratas (vows) that both ascetics and householders have to follow. These ethical principles were preached by Mahavira:

1. Ahimsa (Non-violence or Non-injury). Mahavira taught that every living being has sanctity and dignity of its own and it should be respected just as one expects one's own sanctity and dignity to be respected. Ahimsa is formalised into Jain doctrine as the first and foremost vow. The concept applies to action, speech and thought.
2. Satya (Truthfulness)—neither lie, nor speak what is not true, do not encourage others or approve anyone who speaks the untruth.
3. Asteya — Non-stealing. Theft is explained as "taking anything that has not been given".
4. Brahmacharya (Chastity), abstinence from sensual pleasures for Jain monks, faithfulness to one's partner for Jain householders.
5. Aparigraha (Non-attachment)—non-attachment to both inner possessions (liking, disliking) and external possessions like property.

Mahavira's philosophy has eight cardinal (law of trust), three metaphysical (dravya, Jīva and ajiva), and five ethical principles. The objective is to elevate the quality of life. Mahavira said an individual or society should exercise self-restraint to achieve social peace, security and an enlightened society.

Ahiṃsā

Mahavira preached that ahimsa (non-injury) is the supreme ethical and moral virtue. Mahavira taught that no one likes pain and therefore non-injury must cover all living beings. According to Mahatma Gandhi:

No religion in the World has explained the principle of Ahimsa so deeply and systematically as is discussed with its applicability in every human life in Jainism. As and when the benevolent principle of Ahimsa or non-violence will be ascribed for practice by the people of the world to achieve their end of life in this world and beyond. Jainism is sure to have the uppermost status and Lord Mahāvīra is sure to be respected as the greatest authority on Ahimsa.

Anekantavada

Another fundamental teaching of Mahavira was Anekantavada (pluralism and multiplicity of viewpoints). According to Jain texts, a thing or object of knowledge has infinite characters (i.e., it is anekāntātmaka); each character can be analysed and grasped individually. Each individual character is called a naya. Jains asserts that a naya reveals only a part of the totality, and should not be mistaken for the whole. A synthesis of different viewpoints is said to be achieved by the doctrine of conditional predications (syādvāda) wherein every viewpoint is able to retain its relative importance.

Jaina literature

Adoration

• Svayambhustotra by Acharya Samantabhadra is the adoration of twenty-four Tirthankaras. Its eight shlokas (aphorisms) adore the qualities of Mahavira. One such shloka is:

  O Lord Jina! Your doctrine that expounds essential attributes required of a potential aspirant to cross over the ocean of worldly existence (Saṃsāra) reigns supreme even in this strife-ridden spoke of time (Pancham Kaal). Accomplished sages who have invalidated the so-called deities that are famous in the world, and have made ineffective the whip of all blemishes, adore your doctrine.

• Yuktyanusasana by Acharya Samantabhadra is a poetic work consisting of sixty-four verses in praise of Mahavira.
• Mahaveerashtak Stotra is a famous hymn composed by Jain poet Bhagchand.

Influence

Mahavira's teachings influenced many personalities. Rabindranath Tagore wrote:

Mahavira proclaimed in India, the message of salvation, that religion is a reality and not a mere social convention, that salvation comes from taking refuge in the true religion and not from observing the external ceremonies of the community, that religion cannot regard any barriers between man and man as an eternal variety. Wonderous to say, this teaching rapidly over topped the barriers of the race abiding instinct and conquered the whole county.

— Rabindranath Tagore

A major event is associated with the 2,500th anniversary of the Nirvana of Mahavira in 1974. According to Padmanabh Jaini:

Probably few people in the West are aware that during this Anniversary year for the first time in their long history, the mendicants of the Śvētāmbara, Digambara and Sthānakavāsī sects assembled on the same platform, agreed upon a common flag (Jaina dhvaja) and emblem (pratīka); and resolved to bring about the unity of the community. For the duration of the year four dharma cakras, a wheel mounted on a chariot as an ancient symbol of the samavasaraṇa (Holy Assembly) of Tīrthaṅkara Mahavira traversed to all the major cities of India, winning legal sanctions from various state governments against the slaughter of animals for sacrifice or other religious purposes, a campaign which has been a major preoccupation of the Jainas throughout their history.

— Padmanabh Jaini

In popular culture

Mahavira: The Hero of Nonviolence is an illustrated children’s story based upon the life of Mahavira.

Iconography

Mahavira is usually depicted in a sitting or standing meditative posture with the symbol of a lion beneath him. Every Tīrthankara has a distinguishing emblem that allows worshippers to distinguish similar-looking idols of the Tirthankaras. The lion emblem of Mahavira is usually carved below the legs of the Tirthankara. Like all Tirthankaras, Mahavira is depicted with Shrivatsa and downcast eyes.

Images

An image of Mahavira at the State Museum Lucknow is dated in 1007 AD, while the one at Parshvanatha temple, Kumbharia, is dated in 1179 AD. Another image dated v.s. 1212 is installed at Vimala Vasahi, Mount Abu. An ancient sculpture of Mahavira was found in a cave at Sundarajapuram, Theni district, Tamil Nadu. K Ajithadoss, a Jain scholar based in Chennai dated the sculpture to be of 9th century AD.

• Rock cut sculpture depicting Mahavira at Samanar Hills, Madurai, Tamil Nadu
• The highest known image of Lord Mahavira (in seated position)
• Four sided sculpture depicting Mahavira (found during excavation at Kankali Tila, Mathura)
• Tirthankara Rishabhanatha (left) and Mahavira (right), British Museum, 11th century
• Temple relief of Mahavira, Seattle Asian Art Museum, 14th century
• Relief depicting Mahavira (Thirakoil, Tamil Nadu)
• 16 ft. 2 inch single stone statue of Mahavira at Ahinsa Sthal, Mehrauli, New Delhi
• Mahavira Statue in Cave 32 of Ellora Caves

Temples

According to John Cort, the Mahavira temple at Osian, Jodhpur, Rajasthan is the oldest Jain temple surviving in western India. It was constructed in the late eighth century CE. Other temples of Mahavira include:

• Jal Mandir, Pawapuri
• Shri Mahavirji, Karauli, Rajasthan
• Muchhal Mahavir Temple, Rajasthan
• Sankighatta, Karnataka
• Lakkundi Jain Temple in Lakkundi
• Rata Mahaveerji, Bijapur, Rajasthan
• Bhandavapur Jain Tirth

• Shri Dharmachakra Prabhav Tirth, Gajpanth
• Meguti Jain Temple
• Lakkundi Jain Temple
• Shri Mahavirji
• Osian Jain temple
• Sankighatta, Karnataka
• Jain temple at Kirti Stambha inside Chittorgarh Fort
• Gaon mandir, Pawapuri
• Daman Jain Temple

See also

• Arihant (Jainism)
• God in Jainism
• History of Jainism
• Timeline of Jainism

References

Notes

1. Heinrich Zimmer: "The cycle of time continually revolves, according to the Jainas. The present "descending" (avasarpini) period was preceded and will be followed by an "ascending" (utsarpini). Sarpini suggests the creeping movement of a "serpent" ('sarpin'); ava- means "down" and ut- means up."
2. On this Champat Rai Jain wrote- "Of the two versions of Mahavira's life — the Swetambara and the Digambara— it is obvious that only one can be true: either Mahavira married, or he did not marry. If Mahavira married, why should the Digambaras deny it? There is absolutely no reason for such a denial. The Digambaras acknowledge that nineteen out of the twenty-four Tirthamkaras married and had children. If Mahavira also married it would make no difference. There is thus no reason whatsoever for the Digambaras to deny a simple incident like this. But there may be a reason for the Swetambaras making the assertion; the desire to ante-date their own origin. As a matter of fact their own books contain clear refutation of the statement that Mahavira had married. In the Samavayanga Sutra (Hyderabad edition) it is definitely stated that nineteen Tirthamkaras lived as householders, that is, all the twenty-four excepting Shri Mahavira, Parashva, Nemi, Mallinath and Vaspujya."
3. a special symbol that mark the chest of a Tirthankara

Citations

1. ^ Kailash Chand Jain 1991, p. 32.
2. ^ Heehs 2002, p. 93.
3. ^ von Glasenapp 1999, p. 30.
4. von Dehsen 2013, p. 121.
5. Shanti Lal Jain 1998, p. 50.
6. ^ Zimmer 1953, p. 223.
7. Winternitz 1993, p. 408.
8. von Dehsen 2013, p. 29.
9. Kailash Chand Jain 1991, p. 31.
10. "Life of Vardhamana Mahavira". Jainworld. Retrieved 16 April 2017.
11. ^ von Glasenapp 1999, p. 29.
12. ^ Doniger 1999, p. 549.
13. Chaudhary, Pranava K (14 October 2003). "Row over Mahavira's birthplace". The Times of India. Retrieved 13 October 2016.
14. Dowling & Scarlett 2006, p. 225.
15. ^ Taliaferro & Marty 2010, p. 126.
16. ^ Doniger 1999, p. 549-550.
17. Dundas 2002, p. 24.
18. Zimmer 1953, p. 181.
19. Britannica Tirthankar Definition, Encyclopaedia Britannica
20. Sanghvi, Vir (14 September 2013), "Rude Travel: Down The Sages", Hindustan Times
21. ^ Zimmer 1953, p. 224.
22. Jain & Upadhye 2000, p. 54.
23. Wiley 2009, pp. 5–7.
24. Zimmer 1953, p. 220.
25. von Glasenapp 1999, pp. 16–17.
26. Sangave 2001, p. 128.
27. ^ Dundas 2002, p. 30.
28. Jain & Upadhye 2000, p. 45.
29. Jain & Upadhye 2000, p. 46.
30. Kailash Chand Jain 1991, p. 59.
31. Dundas 2002, p. 19.
32. Jain & Upadhye 2000, p. 47.
33. Sunavala 1934, p. 52.
34. Upinder Singh 2016, p. 313.
35. ^ Zimmer 1953, p. 222.
36. Wiley 2004, p. 134.
37. Shah, Pravin K., Lord Mahavira and Jain Religion, Jain Study Center of North Carolina
38. Gupta & Gupta 2006, p. 1001.
39. ^ Dundas 2002, p. 25.
40. ^ Dundas 2002, p. 21.
41. Jainism: The story of Mahavira, London: Victoria and Albert Museum
42. Umakant P. Shah 1987, p. 95.
43. Champat Rai Jain 1939, p. 97.
44. Shanti Lal Jain 1998, p. 51.
45. ^ George 2008, p. 319.
46. Sen 1999, p. 74.
47. Dundas 2002, p. 27.
48. ^ von Glasenapp 1999, p. 327.
49. Jain & Upadhye 2000, p. 30.
50. von Glasenapp 1999, p. 30, 327.
51. Jain & Upadhye 2000, p. 31.
52. Vijay K. Jain, ed. (13 May 2016). Ācārya Samantabhadra's Ratnakarandaka-śrāvakācāra. p. 5. ISBN 9788190363990.
53. Heehs 2002, p. 90.
54. von Glasenapp 1999, p. 39.
55. ^ Caillat & Balbir 2008, p. 88.
56. Dundas 2002, p. 22-24.
57. von Glasenapp 1999, p. 328.
58. Pramansagar 2008, p. 38–39.
59. "Destinations : Pawapuri". Bihar State Tourism Development Corporation.
60. ^ Vijay K. Jain 2012, p. xi.
61. Vijay K. Jain 2012, p. xii.
62. Sangave 2006, p. 67.
63. Shah, Umakant Premanand, Mahavira Jaina teacher, Encyclopædia Britannica
64. ^ Shah, Pravin K (2011), Five Great Vows (Maha-vratas) of Jainism, Harvard University Literature Center
65. Vijay K. Jain 2012, p. 68.
66. Chakravarthi 2003, p. 3–22.
67. Kailash Chand Jain 1991, p. 16.
68. Jain & Jain 2002, p. 13.
69. Titze 1998, p. 4.
70. Pandey 1998, p. 50.
71. ^ Nanda 1997, p. 44.
72. Great Men's view on Jainism, Jainism Literature Center
73. Jalaj 2011, p. 12.
74. Vijay K Jain 2016, p. 27.
75. Vijay K Jain 2016, p. 28.
76. Vijay K. Jain 2015, p. 164–169.
77. Vijay K. Jain 2015, p. 165.
78. Gokulchandra Jain 2015, p. 84.
79. Mahaveerashtak Stotra
80. Jaini 2000, p. 31.
81. "New Children's Book Mahavira: The Hero of Nonviolence by Wisdom Tales Press", PRLog, 30 June 2014
82. Umakant P. Shah 1987, p. 192.
83. Zimmer 1953, p. 225.
84. Melton & Baumann 2010, p. 1553.
85. Umakant P. Shah 1987, p. 193.
86. "Ancient Mahavira sculpture found in cave near Theni", The Times of India, 3 October 2015
87. Titze 1998, p. 266.
88. Cort 1998, p. 112.

Sources

• Caillat, Colette; Balbir, Nalini (1 January 2008), Jaina Studies (in Prakrit), Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-3247-3{{citation}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
• Chakravarthi, Ram-Prasad (2003), "Non-violence and the other A composite theory of multiplism, heterology and heteronomy drawn from Jainism and Gandhi", Angelaki, 8 (3): 3–22, doi:10.1080/0969725032000154359
• Cort, John E., ed. (1998), Open Boundaries: Jain Communities and Cultures in Indian History, SUNY Press, ISBN 0-7914-3785-X
• Doniger, Wendy, ed. (1999), Encyclopedia of World Religions, Merriam-Webster, ISBN 0-87779-044-2
• Dowling, Elizabeth M.; Scarlett, W. George, eds. (2006), Encyclopedia of Religious and Spiritual Development, Sage Publications, ISBN 0-7619-2883-9
• Dundas, Paul (2002) , The Jains (Second ed.), Routledge, ISBN 0-415-26605-X
• George, Vensus A. (2008), Paths to the Divine: Ancient and Indian, vol. XII, The Council for Research in Values and Philosophy, ISBN 978-1-56518-248-6
• Gupta, K.R.; Gupta, Amita (1 January 2006), Concise Encyclopaedia of India, vol. 3, Atlantic Publishers & Dis, ISBN 978-81-269-0639-0
• Heehs, Peter (2002), Indian Religions: A Historical Reader of Spiritual Expression and Experience, C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, ISBN 978-1-85065-497-1
• Jain, Champat Rai (1939), The Change of Heart, This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
• Jain, Dr. Gokulchandra (2015), Samantabhadrabhāratī (1st ed.), Budhānā, Muzaffarnagar: Achārya Shāntisāgar Chani Smriti Granthmala, ISBN 978-81-90468879
• Jain, Hiralal; Jain, Dharmachandra (1 January 2002), Jaina Tradition in Indian Thought, ISBN 9788185616841
• Jain, Hiralal; Upadhye, Adinath Neminath (2000) , Mahavira, his times and his philosophy of life, Bharatiya Jnanpith
• Jain, Kailash Chand (1991), Lord Mahāvīra and His Times, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0805-8
• Jain, Shanti Lal (1998), ABC of Jainism, Bhopal (M.P.): Jnanodaya Vidyapeeth, ISBN 81-7628-000-3
• Jain, Vijay K. (2012), Acharya Amritchandra's Purushartha Siddhyupaya: Realization of the Pure Self, With Hindi and English Translation, Vikalp Printers, ISBN 978-81-903639-4-5, This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
• Jain, Vijay K. (2015), Acarya Samantabhadra's Svayambhustotra: Adoration of The Twenty-four Tirthankara, Vikalp Printers, ISBN 978-81-903639-7-6, This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
• Jain, Vijay K (1 January 2016), Ācārya Samantabhadra's Aptamimamsa (Devāgamastotra), ISBN 9788190363983
• Jaini, Padmanabh S. (2000), Collected Papers on Jaina Studies, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publ., ISBN 81-208-1691-9
• Jalaj, Dr. Jaykumar (2011), W-O Berglin, Peter (ed.), The Basic Thought Of Bhagavan Mahavir (Tenth ed.), Hindi Granth Karyalay, ISBN 978-81-88769-41-4
• Melton, J. Gordon; Baumann, Martin, eds. (2010), Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices, vol. One: A-B (Second ed.), ABC-CLIO, ISBN 978-1-59884-204-3 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |editorlink2= ignored (|editor-link2= suggested) (help)
• Nanda, R. T. (1997), Contemporary Approaches to Value Education in India, Regency Publications, ISBN 978-81-86030-46-2
• Pandey, Janardan (1998), Gandhi and 21st Century, ISBN 9788170226727
• Pramansagar, Muni (2008), Jain Tattvavidya, India: Bhartiya Gyanpeeth, ISBN 978-81-263-1480-5
• Sangave, Vilas Adinath (2001), Facets of Jainology: Selected Research Papers on Jain Society, Religion, and Culture, Mumbai: Popular Prakashan, ISBN 978-81-7154-839-2
• Sangave, Vilas Adinath (2006) , Aspects of Jaina religion (5 ed.), Bharatiya Jnanpith, ISBN 81-263-1273-4
• Sen, Shailendra Nath (1999) , Ancient Indian History and Civilization (2nd ed.), New Age International, ISBN 81-224-1198-3
• Shah, Umakant Premanand (1987), Jaina-rūpa-maṇḍana: Jaina iconography, Abhinav Publications, ISBN 81-7017-208-X
• Singh, Upinder (2016), A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century, Pearson Education, ISBN 978-93-325-6996-6
• Sunavala, A.J. (1934), Adarsha Sadhu: An Ideal Monk (First paperback edition, 2014 ed.), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-1-107-62386-6
• Taliaferro; Marty (2010), A dictionary of philosophy of Religion, ISBN 978-1-4411-1197-5
• Titze, Kurt (1998), Jainism: A Pictorial Guide to the Religion of Non-Violence (2 ed.), Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-1534-6
• von Dehsen, Christian (13 September 2013), Philosophers and Religious Leaders, Routledge, ISBN 978-81-208-1376-2
• von Glasenapp, Helmuth (1999), Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-1376-6
• Wiley, Kristi L. (1 January 2004), Historical Dictionary of Jainism, Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press, ISBN 0-8108-5051-6
• Wiley, Kristi L. (2009), The A to Z of Jainism, Scarecrow Press, ISBN 978-0-8108-6821-2
• Winternitz, Moriz (1993), History of Indian Literature: Buddhist & Jain Literature, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0265-0
• Zimmer, Heinrich (1953) , Campbell, Joseph (ed.), Philosophies Of India, London, E.C. 4: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd, ISBN 978-81-208-0739-6 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |editorlink= ignored (|editor-link= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: location (link)

External links

• Quotations related to Mahavira at Wikiquote
• Harvard Pluralism Project: Jainism

v t e Jainism topics
Gods	Tirthankara Ganadhara Arihant
Philosophy	Five Vows Ahimsa Epistemology Kevala Jñāna Jaina logic Anekāntavāda Jain cosmology Siddhashila Naraka Heavenly beings Karma Types Causes Gunasthana Dravya Jīva Ajiva Pudgala Dharma Tattva Asrava Bandha Samvara Nirjara Mokṣa Death Saṃsāra Ratnatraya Kashaya
Branches	Digambara Mula Sangha Balatkara Gana Kashtha Sangha Taran Panth Bispanthi Terapanth Yapaniya Kanji Panth Śvetāmbara Murtipujaka Gaccha Kharatara Tapa Tristutik Sthānakavāsī Terapanth
Practices	Sallekhana Meditation Sāmāyika Monasticism Vegetarianism Fasting Rituals Festivals Paryushana Kshamavani Mahamastakabhisheka Upadhan Tapas Pratikramana
Literature	Agama Pravachanasara Shatkhandagama Kasayapahuda Mantra Namokar Mantra Bhaktamara Stotra Tattvartha Sutra Samayasāra Aptamimamsa Kalpa Sūtra Uttaradhyayana
Symbols	Jain flag Siddhachakra Ashtamangala Shrivatsa Nandavarta Auspicious dreams Swastika
Ascetics	Digambara monk Aryika Kshullak Pattavali Acharya
Scholars	Nalini Balbir Colette Caillat Chandabai John E. Cort Paul Dundas Virchand Gandhi Hermann Jacobi Champat Rai Jain Padmanabh Jaini Jeffery D. Long Hampa Nagarajaiah Bal Patil Jinendra Varni
Community	Śrāvaka Sarak Tamil Organisations Digambar Jain Mahasabha Vishwa Jain Sangathan JAINA
Jainism in	India Bundelkhand Delhi Goa Gujarat Haryana Karnataka North Kerala Maharashtra Mumbai Rajasthan Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh Overseas Africa Australia Belgium Canada Europe Hong Kong Japan Pakistan Singapore Southeast Asia United States
Jainism and	Buddhism Hinduism Islam Sikhism Non-creationism
Dynasties and empires	Chalukya Ganga Hoysala Ikshvaku Kadamba Kalinga Maurya Pandya Rashtrakuta Santara
Related	History Timeline Ekendriya Pañca-Parameṣṭhi Pratima Śalākāpuruṣa Tirtha Samavasarana Jain calendar Samvatsari Panch Kalyanaka Statue of Ahimsa Temple Stupa Sculpture Art Law Mathematics Nigoda Jain terms and concepts Sexual differences
Lists	List of Jains List of Jain temples List of Jain ascetics List of Digambar Jain ascetics Topics List (index)
Navboxes	Gods Literature Monks & nuns Scholars Temples America Bengal
Religion portal

• Ascetics
• Indian Jain religious leaders
• Ancient Indian philosophers
• Nonviolence advocates
• Tirthankaras
• Ikshvaku dynasty
• 590s BC births
• Indian Jain monks
• 6th-century BC Indian Jains
• 6th-century BC Jain monks
• 6th-century BC Indian monks
• People from Bihar
• GA-Class Jainism articles