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General of the Army Dwight D. Eisenhower
34th President of the United States
In office January 20, 1953 – January 20, 1961
Vice President	Richard Nixon
Preceded by	Harry S. Truman
Succeeded by	John F. Kennedy
1st Supreme Allied Commander Europe
In office April 2, 1951 – May 30, 1952
Preceded by	Post Created
Succeeded by	Gen. Matthew Ridgway
1st Military Governor of the American Occupation Zone in Germany
In office May 8 – November 10, 1945
Preceded by	Post Created
Succeeded by	Gen. George Patton (acting)
Personal details
Born	David Dwight Eisenhower (1890-10-14)October 14, 1890 Denison, Texas, United States of America
Died	March 28, 1969(1969-03-28) (aged 78) Washington, D.C., United States
Nationality	United States
Political party	Republican
Spouse	Mamie Doud Eisenhower
Children	Doud Dwight Eisenhower, John Sheldon David Doud Eisenhower
Alma mater	U.S. Military Academy West Point, New York, United States
Occupation	Soldier
Awards	Army Distinguished Service Medal with four oak leaf clusters, Legion of Merit, Order of the Bath, Order of Merit, Legion of Honor (partial list)
Signature
Military service
Branch/service	United States Army
Years of service	1915–1953, 1961–1969
Rank	General of the Army
Commands	Europe
Battles/wars	World War II

Dwight David "Ike" Eisenhower (October 14, 1890 – March 28, 1969) was a five-star general in the United States Army and the 34th President of the United States, from 1953 until 1961. During the Second World War, he served as Supreme Commander of the Allied forces in Europe, with responsibility for planning and supervising the successful invasion of France and Germany in 1944–45. In 1951, he became the first supreme commander of NATO.

As President, he oversaw the cease-fire of the Korean War, maintained pressure on the Soviet Union during the Cold War, made nuclear weapons a higher defense priority, launched the Space Race, enlarged the Social Security program, and began the Interstate Highway System. He was the last World War I veteran to serve as U.S. president, and the last president born in the 19th century. Eisenhower ranks highly among former U.S. presidents in terms of approval rating. He was also the first term-limited president in accordance with the 22nd amendment.

Early life and family

Eisenhower was born David Dwight Eisenhower on October 14, 1890, in Denison, Texas, the first president born in that state. He was the third of seven sons born to David Jacob Eisenhower and Ida Elizabeth Stover, of German, English and Swiss ancestry. The house in which he was born has been preserved as Eisenhower Birthplace State Historic Site and is operated by the Texas Historical Commission.

He was named David Dwight and was called Dwight; he reversed the order of his given names when he entered West Point, which is also where he received his nickname, "Ike".

Eisenhower's paternal ancestors can be traced back to Hans Nicolas Eisenhauer, whose surname is German for "iron worker." Hans Eisenhauer and his family emigrated from Karlsbrunn (Saarland), Germany, to Lancaster, Pennsylvania, in 1741. Descendants made their way west. Eisenhower's family settled in Abilene, Kansas, in 1892. His father, David Eisenhower, was a college-educated engineer. Eisenhower graduated from Abilene High School in 1909.

Eisenhower married Mamie Geneva Doud (1896–1979) of Boone, Iowa, on July 1, 1916. The couple had two sons. Doud Dwight Eisenhower was born September 24, 1917, and died of scarlet fever on January 2, 1921, at the age of three. Their second son, John Sheldon Doud Eisenhower, was born the following year on August 3, 1922; John served in the United States Army (retiring as a brigadier general from the Army reserve), became an author, and served as U.S. Ambassador to Belgium from 1969 to 1971. John, coincidentally, graduated from West Point on D-Day, June 6, 1944, and was married to Barbara Jean Thompson in a June wedding in 1947. John and Barbara had four children: Dwight David II "David", Barbara Ann, Susan Elaine and Mary Jean. David, after whom Camp David is named, married Richard Nixon's daughter Julie in 1968.

Religion

Eisenhower's paternal ancestor, Hans Nicholas Eisenhauer, was probably of Lutheran or Reformed Protestant practice. Eisenhower's mother, Ida E. Stover Eisenhower, previously a member of the River Brethren sect of the Mennonites, joined the Bible Students which would evolve into what is now known as Jehovah's Witnesses between 1895 and 1900, when Eisenhower was a child. The Eisenhower home served as the local meeting hall from 1896 to 1915.

When Eisenhower joined the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, New York in 1911, his ties to Jehovah’s Witnesses were weakened because of the group's anti-militarist stance. By 1915, his parents' home no longer served as the meeting hall. All the men in the household abandoned the Witnesses as adults. Some hid their previous affiliation.

Eisenhower was baptized, confirmed, and became a communicant in the Presbyterian Church in a single ceremony on February 1, 1953, just 12 days after his first inauguration. He is the only president known to have undertaken these rites while in office. Eisenhower was instrumental in the addition of the words "under God" to the Pledge of Allegiance in 1954, and the 1956 adoption of "In God We Trust" as the motto of the US, and its 1957 introduction on paper currency. In his retirement years, he was a member of the Gettysburg Presbyterian Church. The chapel at his presidential library is intentionally inter-denominational.

He questioned Billy Graham about how people can be certain they are going to Heaven after death.

Eisenhower was sworn into office with his personal West Point Bible, open to Psalm 33:12, at both his 1953 and 1957 inaugural ceremonies. Additionally for 1953, he included the Bible that George Washington had used in 1789 (belonging to St. John's Masonic Lodge No. 1), opened to II Chronicles 7:14.

Education

Dwight D. Eisenhower attended Abilene High School in Abilene, Kansas and graduated with the class of 1909. He then took a job as a night foreman at the Belle Springs Creamery.

After Dwight worked for two years to support his brother Edgar's college education, a friend urged him to apply to the Naval Academy. Though Eisenhower passed the entrance exam, he was beyond the age of eligibility for admission to the Naval Academy.

Kansas Senator Joseph L. Bristow recommended Dwight for an appointment to the Military Academy in 1911, which he received. Eisenhower graduated in the upper half of the class of 1915. The 1915 class was known as "the class the stars fell on", because 59 members eventually became general officers.

Athletic career

Eisenhower long had aspirations of playing professional baseball:

When I was a small boy in Kansas, a friend of mine and I went fishing and as we sat there in the warmth of the summer afternoon on a river bank, we talked about what we wanted to do when we grew up. I told him that I wanted to be a real major league baseball player, a genuine professional like Honus Wagner. My friend said that he'd like to be President of the United States. Neither of us got our wish.

At West Point, Eisenhower tried out for the baseball team but did not make it. He would later say that "not making the baseball team at West Point was one of the greatest disappointments of my life, maybe my greatest." But Eisenhower did make the football team. He started as a varsity running back and linebacker in 1912. One spectacular Eisenhower touchdown won praise from the sports reporter of the New York Herald. In a bit of a fabled match-up, he even tackled the legendary Jim Thorpe in a 1912 game. The next week however, Eisenhower hurt his knee after being tackled around the ankles. His knee worsened and became permanently damaged on horseback and in the boxing ring. He would later serve as junior varsity football coach and yell leader.

Controversy persists over whether Eisenhower played minor league (semi-professional) baseball for Junction City in the Central Kansas League the year before he attended West Point and played amateur football there.

In 1916, while stationed at Fort Sam Houston, Eisenhower was football coach for St. Louis College, now St. Mary's University.

Eisenhower took up golf very enthusiastically later in life, and joined the Augusta National Golf Club in 1948, upon the club's invitation, during his first visit there. He played golf frequently during his two terms as president, and after his retirement as well, never shying away from the media interest about his passion for golf. He had a small, basic golf facility installed at Camp David, and became close friends with Augusta National Chairman Clifford Roberts, inviting Roberts to stay at the White House on several occasions; Roberts, an investment broker, also handled the Eisenhower family's investments. Roberts also advised Eisenhower on tax aspects of publishing his memoirs, which proved to be financially lucrative. Roberts gave a series of interviews to Columbia University in the late 1960s, covering his relationship with Eisenhower; author David Owen had access to this previously-classified material for his book on the Augusta National Golf Club.

Early military career

Eisenhower enrolled at the United States Military Academy at West Point in June 1911. His parents were against militarism, but did not object to his entering West Point because they supported his education. Eisenhower was a strong athlete and enjoyed notable successes in his competitive endeavors.

Eisenhower graduated in 1915. He served with the infantry until 1918 at various camps in Texas and Georgia. During World War I, Eisenhower became the #3 leader of the new tank corps and rose to temporary (Bvt.) Lieutenant Colonel in the National Army. He spent the war training tank crews in Pennsylvania and never saw combat. After the war, Eisenhower reverted to his regular rank of captain (and was promoted to major a few days later) before assuming duties at Camp Meade, Maryland, where he remained until 1922. His interest in tank warfare was strengthened by many conversations with George S. Patton and other senior tank leaders; however their ideas on tank warfare were strongly discouraged by superiors.

Eisenhower became executive officer to General Fox Conner in the Panama Canal Zone, where he served until 1924. Under Conner's tutelage, he studied military history and theory (including Karl von Clausewitz's On War), and later cited Conner's enormous influence on his military thinking. In 1925–26, he attended the Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, and then served as a battalion commander at Fort Benning, Georgia until 1927.

During the late 1920s and early 1930s Eisenhower's career in the peacetime Army stagnated; many of his friends resigned for high-paying business jobs. He was assigned to the American Battle Monuments Commission, directed by General John J. Pershing, then to the Army War College, and then served as executive officer to General George V. Mosely, Assistant Secretary of War, from 1929 to 1933. He then served as chief military aide to General Douglas MacArthur, Army Chief of Staff, until 1935, when he accompanied MacArthur to the Philippines, where he served as assistant military adviser to the Philippine government. It is sometimes said that this assignment provided valuable preparation for handling the challenging personalities of Winston Churchill, George S. Patton and Bernard Law Montgomery during World War II. Eisenhower was promoted to lieutenant colonel (in a non-brevet status) in 1936 after sixteen years as a major. He also learned to fly, although he was never rated as a military pilot. He made a solo flight over the Philippines in 1937.

Eisenhower returned to the U.S. in 1939 and held a series of staff positions in Washington, D.C., California and Texas. In June 1941, he was appointed Chief of Staff to General Walter Krueger, Commander of the 3rd Army, at Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio, Texas. He was promoted to brigadier general on October 3, 1941. Although his administrative abilities had been noticed, on the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II he had never held an active command and was far from being considered as a potential commander of major operations.

World War II

After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Eisenhower was assigned to the General Staff in Washington, where he served until June 1942 with responsibility for creating the major war plans to defeat Japan and Germany. He was appointed Deputy Chief in charge of Pacific Defenses under the Chief of War Plans Division, General Leonard T. Gerow, and then succeeded Gerow as Chief of the War Plans Division. Then he was appointed Assistant Chief of Staff in charge of Operations Division under Chief of Staff General George C. Marshall. It was his close association with Marshall that finally brought Eisenhower to senior command positions. Marshall recognized his great organizational and administrative abilities.

In 1942, Eisenhower was appointed Commanding General, European Theater of Operations (ETOUSA) and was based in London. In November, he was also appointed Supreme Commander Allied (Expeditionary) Force of the North African Theater of Operations (NATOUSA) through the new operational Headquarters A(E)FHQ. The word "expeditionary" was dropped soon after his appointment for security reasons. In February 1943, his authority was extended as commander of AFHQ across the Mediterranean basin to include the British 8th Army, commanded by General Bernard Law Montgomery. The 8th Army had advanced across the Western Desert from the east and was ready for the start of the Tunisia Campaign. Eisenhower gained his fourth star and gave up command of ETOUSA to be commander of NATOUSA. After the capitulation of Axis forces in North Africa, Eisenhower oversaw the invasion of Sicily and the invasion of the Italian mainland.

In December 1943, it was announced that Eisenhower would be Supreme Allied Commander in Europe. In January 1944, he resumed command of ETOUSA and the following month was officially designated as the Supreme Allied Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF), serving in a dual role until the end of hostilities in Europe in May 1945. In these positions he was charged with planning and carrying out the Allied assault on the coast of Normandy in June 1944 under the code name Operation Overlord, the liberation of western Europe and the invasion of Germany. A month after the Normandy D-Day landings on June 6, 1944, the invasion of southern France took place, and control of the forces which took part in the southern invasion passed from the AFHQ to the SHAEF. From then until the end of the War in Europe on May 8, 1945, Eisenhower through SHAEF had supreme command of all operational Allied forces, and through his command of ETOUSA, administrative command of all U.S. forces, on the Western Front north of the Alps.

As recognition of his senior position in the Allied command, on December 20, 1944, he was promoted to General of the Army equivalent to the rank of Field Marshal in most European armies. In this and the previous high commands he held, Eisenhower showed his great talents for leadership and diplomacy. Although he had never seen action himself, he won the respect of front-line commanders. He dealt skillfully with difficult subordinates such as Omar Bradley and Patton, and allies such as Winston Churchill, Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery and General Charles de Gaulle. He had fundamental disagreements with Churchill and Montgomery over questions of strategy, but these rarely upset his relationships with them. He negotiated with Soviet Marshal Zhukov, and such was the confidence that President Franklin D. Roosevelt had in him, he sometimes worked directly with Stalin, much to the chagrin of the British High Command who disliked being bypassed. During the advance towards Berlin, he was notified by General Bradley that Allied forces would suffer an estimated 100,000 casualties before taking the city. The Soviet Army sustained 80,000 casualties during the fighting in and around Berlin, the last large number of casualties suffered in the war against Nazism.

It was never certain that Operation Overlord would succeed. The seriousness surrounding the entire decision, including the timing and the location of the Normandy invasion, might be summarized by a second shorter speech that Eisenhower wrote in advance, in case he needed it. Long after the successful landings on D-Day and the BBC broadcast of Eisenhower's brief speech concerning them, the never-used second speech was found in a shirt pocket by an aide. It read:

Our landings in the Cherbourg-Havre area have failed to gain a satisfactory foothold and I have withdrawn the troops. My decision to attack at this time and place was based on the best information available. The troops, the air and the Navy did all that bravery and devotion to duty could do. If any blame or fault attaches to the attempt, it is mine alone.

Aftermath of World War II

Occupation of Germany

Eisenhower served as Chief of Staff of the U.S. Army from 1945 to 1948.

Following the German unconditional surrender on May 8, 1945, Eisenhower was appointed Military Governor of the U.S. Occupation Zone, based in Frankfurt am Main. Germany was divided into four Occupation Zones, one each for the U.S., Britain, France, and the Soviet Union. Upon full discovery of the death camps that were part of the Final Solution (Holocaust), he ordered camera crews to comprehensively document evidence of the atrocity for use in the war crimes tribunals. He made the decision to reclassify German prisoners of war (POWs) in U.S. custody as Disarmed Enemy Forces (DEFs), thus depriving them of the protection of the Geneva Convention. As DEFs, their food rations could be lowered and they could be compelled to serve as unfree labor (see Rheinwiesenlager). Eisenhower was an early supporter of the Morgenthau Plan to permanently remove Germany's industrial capacity to wage future wars. In November 1945 he approved the distribution of 1000 free copies of Morgenthau's book Germany is Our Problem, which promoted and described the plan in detail, to American military officials in occupied Germany. Historian Stephen Ambrose draws the conclusion that, despite Eisenhower's later claims the act was not an endorsement of the Morgenthau plan, Eisenhower both approved of the plan and had previously given Morgenthau at least some of his ideas about how Germany should be treated. He also incorporated officials from Morgenthau's Treasury into the army of occupation. These were commonly called "Morgenthau boys" for their zeal in interpreting the occupation directive JCS 1067, which had been heavily influenced by Morgenthau and his plan, as strictly as possible.

Columbia University and NATO

In 1948, Eisenhower became President of Columbia University. In December 1950, he took leave from the university when he became the Supreme Commander of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and given operational command of NATO forces in Europe. Eisenhower retired from active service on May 31, 1952, and resumed the university presidency, which he held until January 1953.

1948 also was the year that Eisenhower's memoir, Crusade in Europe, was published. It is widely regarded as one of the finest U.S. military memoirs.

Entry into politics

Not long after his return in 1952, a "Draft Eisenhower" movement in the Republican party persuaded him to declare his candidacy in the 1952 presidential election to counter the candidacy of non-interventionist Senator Robert Taft. (Eisenhower had been courted by both parties in 1948 and had declined to run then.) Eisenhower defeated Taft for the nomination but came to an agreement that Taft would stay out of foreign affairs while Eisenhower followed a conservative domestic policy. Eisenhower's campaign was noted for the simple but effective slogan "I Like Ike" and was a crusade against the Truman administration's policies regarding "Korea, Communism and Corruption." Truman, formerly a friend of Eisenhower's, never forgave him for not denouncing Senator Joseph McCarthy during the 1952 campaign. Truman said he had previously thought Eisenhower would be a great President, but "he has betrayed almost everything I thought he stood for."

Eisenhower promised during his campaign to go to Korea himself and end the war there. He also promised to maintain both a strong NATO commitment against Communism and a corruption-free frugal administration at home. He and his running mate Richard Nixon, whose daughter later married Eisenhower's grandson David, defeated Democrats Adlai Stevenson and John Sparkman in a landslide, marking the first Republican return to the White House in 20 years, with Eisenhower becoming the last President born in the 19th century. Eisenhower, at 62, was the oldest man to be elected President since James Buchanan in 1856. Eisenhower was the only general to serve as President in the 20th century, and the most recent President to have never held elected office prior to the Presidency. The other Presidents not to have sought prior elected office were Zachary Taylor, Ulysses S. Grant, William Howard Taft, and Herbert Hoover.

Presidency 1953–1961

Throughout his presidency, Eisenhower preached a doctrine of dynamic conservatism. He continued all the major New Deal programs still in operation, especially Social Security. He expanded its programs and rolled them into a new cabinet-level agency, the Department of Health, Education and Welfare, while extending benefits to an additional ten million workers. His cabinet, consisting of several corporate executives and one labor leader, was dubbed by one journalist, "Eight millionaires and a plumber."

Eisenhower won his second term in 1956 with 457 of 531 votes in the Electoral College, and 57.6% of the popular vote.

Interstate Highway System

One of Eisenhower's enduring achievements was championing and signing the bill that authorized the Interstate Highway System in 1956. He justified the project through the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956 as essential to American security during the Cold War. It was believed that large cities would be targets in a possible future war, and the highways were designed to evacuate them and allow the military to move in.

Eisenhower's goal to create improved highways was influenced by his involvement in the U.S. Army's 1919 Transcontinental Motor Convoy. He was assigned as an observer for the mission, which involved sending a convoy of U.S. Army vehicles coast to coast. His subsequent experience with German autobahns during World War II convinced him of the benefits of an Interstate Highway System. Noticing the improved ability to move logistics throughout the country, he thought an Interstate Highway System in the U.S. would not only be beneficial for military operations, but be the building block for continued economic growth.

Eisenhower Doctrine and foreign policy

After the Suez Crisis, the United States became the protector of most Western interests in the Middle East. As a result, Eisenhower proclaimed the "Eisenhower Doctrine" in January 1957. In relation to the Middle East, the U.S. would be "prepared to use armed force... aggression from any country controlled by international communism." On July 15, 1958, he sent just under 15,000 soldiers to Lebanon (a combined force of Army and Marine Corps) as part of Operation Blue Bat, a non-combat peace keeping mission to stabilize the pro-Western government. They left in October of the same year.

In addition, Eisenhower explored the option of supporting the French colonial forces in Vietnam who were fighting an independence insurrection there. In 1953, Eisenhower sent Lt. General John W. "Iron Mike" O'Daniel to Vietnam to study and "assess" the French forces therein. Chief of Staff Matthew Ridgway dissuaded the President from intervening by presenting a comprehensive estimate of the massive military deployment that would be necessary. However, later in 1954, Eisenhower did offer military and economic aid to the new nation of South Vietnam. In the years that followed, the number of US military advisors in South Vietnam increased due to North Vietnam's support of "uprisings" in the south and concern the nation would fall.

As the Cold War deepened, Eisenhower's Secretary of State, John Foster Dulles, sought to isolate the Soviet Union by building regional alliances of nations against it. His efforts were sometimes called "pacto-mania".

Civil rights and national security

In October 1952, the Eisenhower administration declared racial discrimination a national security issue. In How Free is Free? historian Leon Litwack writes:

The restructuring of race relations took on a new urgency, an importance reserved for matters of national security. White supremacy, at least its most blatant and embarrassing manifestations, had become too costly to defend to sustain. In October 1952, when the Justice Department filed an amicus brief in the case of Brown v. Board of Education, it explained the interest of the president and the executive branch in the eventual decision. Nothing less was at stake than the very credibility of the United States in the international anti-Communist struggle. "It is in the context of the present world struggle between freedom and tyranny that the problem of racial discrimination must be viewed... Racial discrimination furnishes grist for the Communist propaganda mills, and it raises doubts even among friendly nations as to the intensity of our devotion to the democratic faith." The brief also cited a response from Secretary of State Dean Acheson affirming the importance of this case in the conduct of foreign relations. "The undeniable existence of racial discrimination, he declared, "gives unfriendly governments the most effective kind of ammunition for their propaganda warfare,... and jeopardizes the effective maintenance of our moral leadership of the free and democratic nations of the world."

The day after the U.S. Supreme Court handed down its decision in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka in which segregated ("separate but equal") schools were ruled to be unconstitutional, Eisenhower told District of Columbia officials to make Washington a model for the rest of the country in integrating black and white public school children. He proposed to Congress the Civil Rights Acts of 1957 and 1960 and signed those acts into law. Although both Acts were weaker than subsequent civil rights legislation, they constituted the first significant civil rights acts since the Civil Rights Act of 1875, signed by President Ulysses S. Grant. The "Little Rock Nine" incident of 1957 involved the refusal by Arkansas to honor a Federal court order to integrate the schools. Under Executive Order 10730, Eisenhower placed the Arkansas National Guard under Federal control and sent Army troops to escort nine black students into Little Rock Central High School, an all-white public school. The integration did not occur without violence. Eisenhower and Arkansas governor Orval Faubus engaged in tense arguments.

Judicial appointments

Supreme Court

Eisenhower appointed the following Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States:

• Earl Warren, 1953 (Chief Justice)
• John Marshall Harlan II, 1954
• William J. Brennan, 1956
• Charles Evans Whittaker, 1957
• Potter Stewart, 1958

Other courts

In addition to his five Supreme Court appointments, Eisenhower appointed 45 judges to the United States Courts of Appeals, and 129 judges to the United States district courts.

States admitted to the Union

• Alaska – January 3, 1959 49th state
• Hawaii – August 21, 1959 50th state

Health issues

Eisenhower was probably the first president to allow his personal health problems to become public while in office. In September 1955, while vacationing in Colorado, he had a serious myocardial infarct (heart attack) that required several weeks' hospitalization. He was treated by Dr. Paul Dudley White, a cardiologist with a national reputation, who regularly informed the press of the president's progress. As a consequence of his heart attack, Eisenhower developed a left ventricular aneurysm, which was in turn the source of a thromboembolic cerebrovascular accident (stroke) in November 1957. The president also suffered from regional enteritis (Crohn's disease), a chronic inflammatory condition of the intestine, which necessitated surgery for a bowel obstruction in June 1956. Fortunately, the last 3 years of Eisenhower's term in office were ones of relatively good health. Eventually, however, after leaving the White House, he suffered several additional myocardial infarcts and was ultimately impaired physically because of them.

End of presidency

In 1961, Eisenhower became the first U.S. president to be "constitutionally forced" from office, having served the maximum two terms allowed by the 22nd Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. The amendment was ratified in 1951, during Harry S. Truman's term, but it stipulated that Truman would not be affected by the amendment.

Eisenhower was also the first outgoing President to come under the protection of the Former Presidents Act; two then-living former Presidents, Herbert Hoover and Harry S. Truman, left office before the Act was passed. Under the act, Eisenhower was entitled to receive a lifetime pension, state-provided staff and a Secret Service detail.

In the 1960 election to choose his successor, Eisenhower endorsed his own Vice-President, Republican Richard Nixon against Democrat John F. Kennedy. He thoroughly supported Nixon over Kennedy, telling friends: "I will do almost anything to avoid turning my chair and country over to Kennedy." However, he only campaigned for Nixon in the campaign's final days and even did Nixon some harm. When asked by reporters at the end of a televised press conference to list one of Nixon's policy ideas he had adopted, he joked, "If you give me a week, I might think of one." Kennedy's campaign used the quote in one of its campaign commercials. Nixon lost narrowly to Kennedy. Eisenhower, who was the oldest elected president in history at that time, thus handed power over to the youngest elected president.

On January 17, 1961, Eisenhower gave his final televised Address to the Nation from the Oval Office. In his farewell speech to the nation, Eisenhower raised the issue of the Cold War and role of the U.S. armed forces. He described the Cold War saying: "We face a hostile ideology global in scope, atheistic in character, ruthless in purpose and insidious in method..." and warned about what he saw as unjustified government spending proposals and continued with a warning that "we must guard against the acquisition of unwarranted influence, whether sought or unsought, by the military-industrial complex... Only an alert and knowledgeable citizenry can compel the proper meshing of the huge industrial and military machinery of defense with our peaceful methods and goals, so that security and liberty may prosper together."

Because of legal issues related to holding a military rank while in a civilian office, Eisenhower resigned his permanent commission as General of the Army before entering the office of President of the United States. Upon completion of his Presidential term, his commission on the retired list was reactivated and Eisenhower again was commissioned a five-star general in the United States Army.

Post-presidency

Eisenhower retired to the place where he and Mamie had spent much of their post-war time, a working farm adjacent to the battlefield at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. In 1967, the Eisenhowers donated the farm to the National Park Service and since 1980 it has been open to the public as the Eisenhower National Historic Site. In retirement, he did not completely retreat from political life; he spoke at the 1964 Republican National Convention and appeared with Barry Goldwater in a Republican campaign commercial from Gettysburg.

Death and funeral

Eisenhower died of congestive heart failure on March 28, 1969, at Walter Reed Army Hospital in Washington D.C. The following day his body was moved to the Washington National Cathedral's Bethlehem Chapel where he lay in repose for twenty-eight hours. On March 30, his body was brought by caisson to the United States Capitol where he lay in state in the Capitol Rotunda. On March 31, Eisenhower's body was returned to the National Cathedral where he was given an Episcopal Church funeral service. That evening, Eisenhower's body was placed onto a train en route to Abilene, Kansas. His body arrived on April 2, and was interred later that day in a small chapel on the grounds of the Eisenhower Presidential Library. Eisenhower is buried alongside his son Doud who died at age 3 in 1921, and his wife, Mamie, who died in 1979.

Nixon spoke of Eisenhower's death, "Some men are considered great because they lead great armies or they lead powerful nations. For eight years now, Dwight Eisenhower has neither commanded an army nor led a nation; and yet he remained through his final days the world's most admired and respected man, truly the first citizen of the world."

Legacy

After Eisenhower left office, his reputation declined and he was seen as having been a "do-nothing" President. This was partly because of the contrast between Eisenhower and his young activist successor, John F. Kennedy. Despite his unprecedented use of Army troops to enforce a federal desegregation order at Central High School in Little Rock, Eisenhower was criticized for his reluctance to support the civil rights movement to the degree which other activists wanted. Eisenhower was also criticized for his handling of the 1960 U-2 incident and the international embarrassment, the Soviet Union's perceived leadership in the Arms race and the Space race, and his failure to publicly oppose McCarthyism. In particular, Eisenhower was criticized for failing to defend George Marshall from attacks by Joseph McCarthy, though he privately deplored McCarthy's tactics and claims. Such omissions were held against him during the liberal climate of the 1960s and 1970s. Since that time, however, Eisenhower's reputation has risen. In recent surveys of historians, Eisenhower often is ranked in the top 10 among all US Presidents.

Although conservatism was riding on the crest of the wave in the 1950s, and Eisenhower shared the sentiment, his administration played a very modest role in shaping the political landscape. "Eisenhower's victories were," according to Hans Morgenthau, "but accidents without consequence in the history of the Republican party."

Eisenhower was the first President to hire a White House Chief of Staff or "gatekeeper" – an idea that he borrowed from the United States Army, and that has been copied by every president after Lyndon Johnson. (Gerald Ford and Jimmy Carter initially tried to operate without a Chief of Staff but both eventually gave up the effort and hired one.)

Eisenhower founded People to People International in 1956, based on his belief that citizen interaction would promote cultural interaction and world peace. The program includes a student ambassador component which sends American youth on educational trips to other countries.

Tributes and memorials

Eisenhower's picture was on the dollar coin from 1971 to 1978. Nearly 700 million of the copper-nickel clad coins were minted for general circulation, and far smaller numbers of uncirculated and proof issues (in both copper-nickel and 40% silver varieties) were produced for collectors. He reappeared on a commemorative silver dollar issued in 1990, celebrating the 100th anniversary of his birth, which with a double image of him showed his two roles, as both a soldier and a statesman. The reverse of the commemorative depicted his home in Gettysburg. As part of the Presidential $1 Coin Program, Eisenhower will be featured on a gold-colored dollar coin in 2015.

He is remembered for his role in World War II, the creation of the Interstate Highway System and ending the Korean War. USS Dwight D. Eisenhower, the second Nimitz-class supercarrier, was named in his honor.

The Interstate Highway System is officially known as the Dwight D. Eisenhower National System of Interstate and Defense Highways in his honor. Several highways are also named for him, including the Eisenhower Expressway (Interstate 290) near Chicago and the Eisenhower Tunnel on Interstate 70 west of Denver.

The British A4 class steam locomotive No. 4496 (renumbered 60008) Golden Shuttle was renamed Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1946. It is preserved at the National Railroad Museum in Green Bay, Wisconsin.

Eisenhower College was a small, liberal arts college chartered in Seneca Falls, New York in 1965, with classes beginning in 1968. Financial problems forced the school to fall under the management of the Rochester Institute of Technology in 1979. Its last class graduated in 1983.

The Eisenhower Medical Center in Rancho Mirage, California was named after the President in 1971.

The Dwight D. Eisenhower Army Medical Center, located at Fort Gordon near Augusta, Georgia, was named in his honor.

In February 1971, Dwight D. Eisenhower School of Freehold Township, New Jersey was officially opened.

In 1983, The Eisenhower Institute was founded in Washington, D.C., as a policy institute to advance Eisenhower's intellectual and leadership legacies.

In 1989, U.S. Ambassador Charles Price and UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher dedicated a bronze statue of Eisenhower in Grosvenor Square, London. The statue is located in front of the current US Embassy, London and across from the former command center for the Allied Expeditionary Force during World War II, offices Eisenhower occupied during the war.

In 1999, the United States Congress created the Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial Commission, which is in the planning stages of creating an enduring national memorial in Washington, D.C., across the street from the National Air and Space Museum on the National Mall.

On May 7, 2002, the Old Executive Office Building was officially renamed the Eisenhower Executive Office Building. This building is part of the White House Complex, west of the West Wing. It currently houses a number of executive offices, including ones for the Vice President and his or her spouse.

In 2009, Frank Gehry was commissioned to design a memorial to Eisenhower to stand near the National Mall.

A county park in East Meadow, New York (Long Island) is named in his honor. In addition, Eisenhower State Park on Lake Texoma near his birthplace of Denison is named in his honor; his actual birthplace is currently operated by the State of Texas as Eisenhower Birthplace State Historic Site.

Many public high schools and middle schools in the U.S. are named after Eisenhower.

There is a Mount Eisenhower in the Presidential Range of the White Mountains in New Hampshire.

A tree overhanging the 17th hole that always gave him trouble at Augusta National Golf Club, where he was a member, is named the Eisenhower Tree in his honor.

The Eisenhower Golf Club at the United States Air Force Academy, a 36-hole facility featuring the Blue and Silver courses and which is ranked #1 among DoD courses, is named in Eisenhower's honor.

Awards and decorations

United States awards

In Order of Precedence

• Medal of Honor
•   Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal
• World War II Victory Medal
• World War I Victory Medal
• Distinguished Service Cross
• Vietnam Service Medal
• Coast Guard Distinguished Service Medal
• Air Medal
• Korea Defense Service Medal
• Korean Service Medal
• Spanish War Service Medal
• Mexican Service Medal
• Army of Occupation Medal with "Japan" clasp
• Spanish Campaign Medal
• American Defense Service Medal
• National Defense Service Medal

He was offered the Medal of Honor, but turned it down. He was also an honorary member of the Boy Scouts of America's Tom Kita Chara Lodge #96.

International awards

List of citations bestowed by other countries.

• Argentine Order of the Liberator San Martin, Great Cross
• Belgian Order of Léopold
• Belgian Croix de Guerre/Belgisch Oorlogskruis
• Brazil Campaign Medal
• Brazil War Medal
• Brazilian Order of Military Merit, Grand Cross
• Brazilian Order of Aeronautical Merit, Grand Cross
• Brazilian National Order of the Southern Cross
• British Order of the Bath, Knight Grand Cross
• British Africa Star with "8" and "1" numerical devices.
• Chilean Chief Commander of the Order of Merit
• Chinese Order of Yun Hui, Grand Cordon
• Chinese Order of Yun Fei, Grand Cordon
• Commonwealth realms Order of Merit
• Czechoslovakian Order of the White Lion
• Czechoslovakian Golden Star of Victory
• Danish Order of the Elephant
• Ecuadorian Star of Abdon Calderon
• Egyptian Order of Ismal, Grand Cordon
• Ethiopian Order of Solomon
• French Croix de Guerre
• French Legion of Honor.
• French Order of Liberation
• French Military Medal
• Greek Order of George I with swords
• Guatemalan Cross of Military Merit, First Class
• Haitian Order of Honor and Merit, Grand Cross
• Italy Military Order of Italy, Knight Grand Cross
• Italy Order of Malta
• Luxembourg Medal of Merit
• Luxembourg War Cross
• Mexican Order of the Aztec Eagle, First Class
• Mexican Medal of Civic Merit
• Mexican Order of Military Merit
• Moroccan Order of Ouissam Alaouite
• Netherlands: Order of the Netherlands Lion, Knight Grand Cross
• Norwegian Order of St. Olav
• Pakistani Nishan-e-Pakistan, or Order of Pakistan, First Class
• Panama Order of Vasco Nunez de Balboa, Grand Cross
• Panama Order of Manuel Amador Guerrero, Grand Master (collar grade)
• Philippines Distinguished Service Star
• Philippines Shield of Honor Medal, Chief Commander
• Philippines Order of Sikatuna, Raja (First Class)
• Polish Cross of Grunwald, First Class
• Polish Order of Polonia Restituta
• Polish Virtuti Militari
• Soviet Order of Suvorov
• Soviet Order of Victory
• Tunisian Order of Nichan Iftikhar, Gand Cordon

Other honors

• In 1966, Eisenhower was the second person to be awarded Civitan International's World Citizenship Award.
• Eisenhower's name was given to a variety of streets, avenues, etc., in cities around the world, including Paris, France.
• In December 1999, Eisenhower was listed on Gallup's List of Most Widely Admired People of the 20th Century.
• In 2009, Eisenhower was named to the World Golf Hall of Fame in the Lifetime Achievement category for his contributions to the sport.

See also

• Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower
• Mamie Eisenhower, wife of Dwight D. Eisenhower
• John Eisenhower, author, U.S. Ambassador to Belgium
• David Eisenhower, author, public policy fellow
• Julie Nixon Eisenhower, author and editor
• Atoms for Peace, a speech to the U.N. General Assembly in December 1953
• Eisenhower National Historic Site
• Eisenhower Presidential Center
• Historical rankings of United States Presidents
• History of the United States (1945–1964)
• Kay Summersby
• Military-industrial complex, a term made popular by Eisenhower
• Mount Eisenhower
• People to People Student Ambassador Program
• German Americans
• Thomas E. Stephens Portrait painter (Gallery of Presidents, Smithsonian) and friend of Eisenhower
• Ike: Countdown to D-Day A 2004 American television film about Eisenhower's difficult decisions he had to make as Supreme Commander that led to the successful D-Day invasion of World War II.

References

Specific references:

1. "Dwight D. Eisenhower". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2008-05-23.
2. "Dwight and Mamie Eisenhower". Eisenhower Presidential Center. Retrieved 2008-05-23.
3. "Biography of Dwight D. Eisenhower". whitehouse.gov. The White House. Retrieved 2008-09-06.
4. Eisenhower, David (2007). "World War II and Its Meaning for Americans". www.pfri.org. Foreign Policy Research Institute. Retrieved 2008-09-06. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
5. Dwight D. Eisenhower from the website of the National Portrait Gallery
6. "EISENHOWER - Name Meaning & Origin". The New York Times Company. genealogy.about.com. Retrieved 2008-09-06.
7. Ambrose 1983, pp. 13–14
8. ^ "Public School Products". Time. 1959-09-14. Retrieved 2008-09-06.
9. Berger-Knorr, Lawrence. The Pennsylvania Relations of Dwight D. Eisenhower. p. 8.
10. Smith, Gary Scott, (2006). Faith and the Presidency: From George Washington to George W. Bush. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-530060-2. Retrieved: 2008-05-24
11. The Watchtower, 2002, p.159 | "They Are No Part of the World" Worship the Only True God | © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania
12. Reasoning From the Scriptures 1985, p. 138 | “Neutrality” | © Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania
13. Bergman, Jerry (December 1999). "Why President Eisenhower Hid His Jehovah's Witness Upbringing". JW Research Journal. 6 (2).
14. Jehovah Witnesses Abilene Congregation. Dwight D. Eisenhower Library. Eisenhower Presidential Center. (Adobe Acrobat *.PDF document). Retrieved: 2008-05-23
15. Eisenhower Presidential Trivia. (c/o Archive.org. Archive Date: 2007-06-12). Eisenhower Presidential Center. Retrieved: 2008-05-24
16. "Gettysburg Presbyterian Church". Gettysburg. Retrieved 2008-05-23.
17. Gibbs, Nancy; and Michael Duffy. "Billy Graham, Pastor In Chief". TIME. August 9, 2007. Retrieved: 2008-06-07
18. President Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1953. Joint Congressional Committee on Inaugural Ceremonies. U.S. Senate.
19. President Dwight David Eisenhower, 1957. Joint Congressional Committee on Inaugural Ceremonies. U.S. Senate.
20. "Eisenhower: Soldier of Peace". TIME. 1969-04-04. Retrieved 2008-05-23.
21. ^ "Biography: Dwight David Eisenhower". Eisenhower Foundation. Retrieved 2008-05-23.
22. "Dwight David Eisenhower". Internet Public Library. Retrieved 2008-05-23.
23. ^ "President Dwight D. Eisenhower Baseball Related Quotations". Baseball Almanac. Retrieved 2008-05-23.
24. Botelho, Greg (1912-07-15). "Roller-coaster life of Indian icon, sports' first star". CNN. Retrieved 2008-05-23.
25. "Ike and the Team". Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial. Retrieved 2008-05-23.
26. "Eisenhower BOQ 1915". Fort Sam Houston. Retrieved 2008-05-24.
27. "Lt Eisenhower and Football Team". Fort Sam Houston. Retrieved 2008-05-24.
28. ^ The Making of the Masters: Clifford Roberts, Augusta National, and Golf's Most Prestigious Tournament, by David Owen, Simon and Schuster, 1999, ISBN 0-684-85729-4
29. Sixsmith 1973, p. 6
30. Bender, Mark C. (1990). "Watershed at Leavenworth". U.S. Army Command and General Staff College. Retrieved 2008-09-06.
31. The Eisenhowers: The General
32. Hakim, Joy (1995). A History of Us: War, Peace and all that Jazz. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509514-6.
33. Eisenhower lived in 'Telegraph Cottage', Warren Road, Coombe, Kingston Upon Thames from 1942 to 1944. A plaque commemorating this, placed there in 1995 by the Royal Borough of Kingston Upon Thames, can be seen at the north end of Warren Road.
34. Memoir of Eisenhower's translator for the Potsdam Conference meetings with Zhukov Paul P. Roudakoff (1955-07-22). "Ike and Zhukov". Collier's Magazine.
35. D'Este 2002, pp. 694–96
36. Ambrose, Stephen E. (2000). Eisenhower and Berlin, 1945: The Decision to Halt at the Elbe.
37. Ambrose, Stephen (1983). Eisenhower: Soldier, General of the Army, President-Elect (1893–1952). New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 422.
38. Petrov, Vladimir (1967). Money and conquest; allied occupation currencies in World War II. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 228–229.
39. Stephen E. Ambrose, Eisenhower, New York, Touchstone Books, 1990, pp 234–235, ISBN 0-671-70107-X
40. Crusade in Europe, Doubleday; 1st edition (1948), 559 pages, ISBN 1-125-30091-4
41. ^ Gibbs, Nancy (November 10, 2008). "When New President Meets Old, It's Not Always Pretty". TIME. {{cite news}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
42. Frum, David (2000). How We Got Here: The '70s. New York, New York: Basic Books. p. 7. ISBN 0465041957. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
43. The Eleanor Roosevelt Papers."Dwight Eisenhower." Teaching Eleanor Roosevelt, ed. by Allida Black, June Hopkins, et. al. (Hyde Park, New York: Eleanor Roosevelt National Historic Site, 2003). http://www.nps.gov/archive/elro/glossary/eisenhower-dwight.htm .
44. "The Flavor of the New". Time. 1969-01-24. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
45. "The cracks are showing". The Economist. 2008-06-26. Retrieved 2008-10-23. {{cite news}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
46. "The Last Week – The Road to War". USS Washington (BB-56). Retrieved 2008-05-23.
47. "About the Author". USS Washington (BB-56). Retrieved 2008-05-23.
48. ""Interstate Highway System"". Eisenhower Presidential Center. Retrieved 2008-05-23.
49. James Dunnigan and Albert Nofi, Dirty Little Secrets of the Vietnam War. St. Martins Press, 1999. ISBN 0-312-19857-4. p 85.
50. James Dunnigan and Albert Nofi, Dirty Little Secrets of the Vietnam War. p 257.
51. James Dunnigan and Albert Nofi, Dirty Little Secrets of the Vietnam War. p 257.
52. Cornelia Navari, Internationalism and the State in the Twentieth Century. Routledge, 2000. ISBN 978-0415097475. p. 316.
53. http://press.princeton.edu/titles/6924.html Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy by Mary L. Dudziak 2002 Princeton University Press
54. Eisenhower administration amicus brief in Brown v. Board of Education
55. How Free is Free? The Long Death of Jim Crow by Pulitzer Prize-winning historian Leon Litwack 2009 Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0674031524 p. 101–102
56. Eisenhower 1963, p. 230
57. Parmet 1972, pp. 438–439
58. Ferrell RH: Ill-Advised: Presidential Health & Public Trust, University of Missouri Press, Columbia, MO, 1992; pp. 53–150.
59. "President Dwight Eisenhower: Health & Medical History". doctorzebra.com. Retrieved 2009-08-13.
60. "Former Presidents Act". National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2008-05-23.
61. "Dwight D. Eisenhower Farewell Address". USA Presidents. Retrieved 2008-05-23.
62. Eisenhower Archives. Post Presidential Years. Quote: "President Kennedy reactivated his commission as a five star general in the United States Army. With the exception of George Washington, Eisenhower is the only United States President with military service to reenter the Armed Forces after leaving the office of President."
63. "John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum, A Chronology from The New York Times, March 1961". 1961-03-23. Retrieved 2009-05-30. Mr. Kennedy signed into law the act of Congress restoring the five-star rank of General of the Army to his predecessor, Dwight D. Eisenhower. (15:5)
64. Eisenhower National Historic Site (U.S. National Park Service)
65. "Johnson vs. Goldwater". The Living Room Candidate. Retrieved 2008-05-23.
66. "Dwight D. Eisenhower". Eisenhower Presidential Center. Retrieved 2008-05-23.
67. http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1969/Chappaquiddick/12303189849225-7/#title "1969 Year in Review, UPI.com"
68. Frum, David (2000). How We Got Here: The '70s. New York, New York: Basic Books. p. 27. ISBN 0465041957. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
69. Walsh, Kenneth T. (2008-06-06). "Presidential Lies and Deceptions". US News and World Report. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
70. "Presidential Politics". Public Broadcasting Service. Retrieved 2008-05-23.
71. Hans J. Morgenthau: "Goldwater – The Romantic Regression", in Commentary, September 1964.
72. "Our Heritage". peopletopeople.com. People to People. Retrieved 29 September 2009.
73. "Dwight D. Eisenhower". www.aoc.gov. Architect of the Capitol. Retrieved November 29, 2008.
74. ^ Yeoman, R.S. (2007). Kenneth Bressett (ed.). 2008 Guide Book of United States Coins (61st ed.). Atlanta: Whitman Publishing. pp. 218, 294. ISBN 0794822673.
75. "Presidential Dollar Coin Release Schedule". United States Mint. Retrieved 2008-05-24.
76. "History of Eisenhower Army Medical Center". Dwight D. Eisenhower Army Medical Center. Archived from the original on 2007-02-03. Retrieved 2008-05-23.
77. "Eisenhower Middle School History". Freehold Township Elementary and Middle Schools. Retrieved 2008-05-23.
78. "Statue of President Eisenhower in Grosvenor Square". www.usembassy.org.uk. US Embassy. Retrieved March 2, 2009.
79. The White House. Eisenhower Executive Office Building. Construction Chronology & Historical Events for the Eisenhower Executive Office Building
80. "Frank Gehry to design Eisenhower Memorial". bizjournals.com. American City Business Journals. April 1, 2009. Retrieved 2009-04-03.
81. Trescott, Jacqueline (2009-04-02). "Architect Gehry Gets Design Gig For Ike Memorial". The Washington Post. The Washington Post Company.
82. "Eisenhower Park". Nassau County, New York. Retrieved 2008-05-23.
83. "Eisenhower Decorations and Awards". Eisenhower Presidential Center. Retrieved 2008-05-23.
84. Eisenhower, John S. D. Allies.
85. Armbrester, Margaret E. (1992). The Civitan Story. Birmingham, AL: Ebsco Media. p. 97.
86. President Eisenhower named to World Golf Hall of Fame

General references:

• Ambrose, Stephen (1983). Eisenhower: Soldier, General of the Army, President-Elect (1893–1952). New York: Simon & Schuster..
• D'Este, Carlo (2002). "Eisenhower: A Soldier's Life". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help).
• Eisenhower, Dwight D. (1963). "Mandate for Change, 1953–1956". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help).
• Parmet, Herbert S. (1972). "Eisenhower and the American Crusades". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help).
• Sixsmith, E. K. G. (1973). "Eisenhower, His Life and Campaigns". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help).

Further reading

Military career

• Ambrose, Stephen E. Eisenhower: Soldier, General of the Army, President-Elect, 1890–1952 (1983);'
• Bacque, James. Other Losses (2d. rev. ed., 1999)
• Eisenhower, David. Eisenhower at War 1943–1945 (1986), detailed study by his grandson
• Irish, Kerry E. "Apt Pupil: Dwight Eisenhower and the 1930 Industrial Mobilization Plan", The Journal of Military History 70.1 (2006) 31–61 online in Project Muse.
• Pogue, Forrest C. The Supreme Command (1996) official Army history of SHAEF
• Weigley, Russell. Eisenhower's Lieutenants. Indiana University Press, 1981. Ike's dealings with his key generals in WW2

Civilian career

• Albertson, Dean, ed. Eisenhower as President (1963).
• Alexander, Charles C. Holding the Line: The Eisenhower Era, 1952–1961 (1975).
• Ambrose, Stephen E. Eisenhower: Soldier, General of the Army, President-Elect, 1890–1952 (1983); Eisenhower. The President (1984); one volume edition titled Eisenhower: Soldier and President (2003). Standard biography.
• Bowie, Robert R. and Richard H. Immerman; Waging Peace: How Eisenhower Shaped an Enduring Cold War Strategy, Oxford University Press, 1998.
• Damms, Richard V. The Eisenhower Presidency, 1953–1961 (2002).
• David Paul T. (ed.), Presidential Nominating Politics in 1952. 5 vols., Johns Hopkins Press, 1954.
• Divine, Robert A. Eisenhower and the Cold War (1981).
• Greenstein, Fred I. The Hidden-Hand Presidency: Eisenhower as Leader (1991).
• Harris, Douglas B. "Dwight Eisenhower and the New Deal: The Politics of Preemption" Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 27, 1997.
• Harris, Seymour E. The Economics of the Political Parties, with Special Attention to Presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy (1962).
• Krieg, Joann P. ed. Dwight D. Eisenhower, Soldier, President, Statesman (1987). 24 essays by scholars.
• McAuliffe, Mary S. "Eisenhower, the President", Journal of American History 68 (1981), pp. 625–632.
• Medhurst, Martin J. Dwight D. Eisenhower: Strategic Communicator Greenwood Press, 1993.
• Pach, Chester J. and Elmo Richardson. Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower (1991). Standard scholarly survey.

Primary sources

• Boyle, Peter G., ed. The Churchill-Eisenhower Correspondence, 1953–1955 University of North Carolina Press, 1990.
• Eisenhower, Dwight D. Crusade in Europe (1948), his war memoirs.
• Eisenhower, Dwight D. The White House Years: Waging Peace 1956–1961, Doubleday and Co., 1965.
• Eisenhower Papers 21 volume scholarly edition; complete for 1940–1961.
• Summersby, Kay. Eisenhower was my boss (1948) New York: Prentice Hall; (1949) Dell paperback.

External links

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• The Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum
• Extensive essay on Dwight D. Eisenhower (with shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs)
• 1952 Ike for President TV Ad
• Full audio of Eisenhower speeches via the Miller Center of Public Affairs (UVa)
• Eisenhower's Secret White House Recordings via the Miller Center of Public Affairs (UVa)
• Audio clips of Eisenhower's speeches
• Dwight David Eisenhower biography
• Eisenhower Chronology World History Database
• Eisenhower Presidential Library & Museum, including Home and Tomb
• Essay: Why the Eisenhower administration embraced nuclear weapons (PDF)
• Farewell Address (Wikisource)
• Guardians of Freedom – 50th Anniversary of Operation Arkansas, by ARMY.MIL
• First Inaugural Address
• Original Document: D-Day Statement from Dwight D. Eisenhower
• Second Inaugural Address
• Spartacus Educational Biography
• The Arms of Dwight David Eisenhower
• The Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial Commission
• The Last Salute: Civil and Military Funeral, 1921–1969, CHAPTER XXIX, Former President Dwight D. Eisenhower, State Funeral, March 28 – April 2, 1969 by B. C. Mossman and M. W. Stark
• The Presidential Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower (searchable online)
• White House biography
• Thaw in the Cold War: Eisenhower and Khrushchev at Gettysburg, a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan
• TIME Magazine Cover: Dwight D. Eisenhower, April 4, 1969
• Eisenhower's report on operation Torch
• Works by Dwight D. Eisenhower at Project Gutenberg
• 'The American Presidency: Transformation and Change – Dwight Eisenhower', lecture overview of Eisenhower's presidency by Vernon Bogdanor, Gresham College, March 18, 2008 (available in text, audio and video formats).
• The Eisenhower Center for American Studies
• Eisenhower Center Studies on War and Peace

Links to related articles

Political offices Preceded byHarry S. Truman President of the United States January 20, 1953 – January 20, 1961 Succeeded byJohn F. Kennedy Party political offices Preceded byThomas Dewey Republican Party presidential candidate 1952, 1956 Succeeded byRichard Nixon Military offices New title Supreme Allied Commander Europe (NATO) 1949–1952 Succeeded byGen. Matthew Ridgway Preceded byGen. George Marshall Chief of Staff of the United States Army 1945–1948 Succeeded byGen. Omar Bradley New title Military Governor of the U.S. Occupation Zone in Germany 1945 Succeeded byGen. George S. Patton Preceded byGen. Jacob L. Devers Commanding General of U.S. Army Europe 1944–1945 Succeeded byGen. Joseph T. McNarney Preceded byMaj. Gen. James E. Chaney Commanding General of U.S. Army Europe 1942–1943 Succeeded byLt. Gen. Frank M. Andrews Academic offices Preceded byFrank D. Fackenthal¹ President of Columbia University 1948–1953 Succeeded byGrayson L. Kirk Honorary titles Preceded byHerbert Hoover People who have lain in state or honor in the United States Capitol rotunda March 30, 1969 – March 31, 1969 Succeeded byEverett Dirksen Notes and references 1. www.encyclopedia.com |} v t e Leaders of the United States Army Senior Officer / Commanding General Washington Knox Doughty Harmar St. Clair Wayne Hamilton Wilkinson Dearborn J. Brown Macomb W. Scott McClellan Halleck Grant Sherman Sheridan Schofield Miles Chiefs of Staff Young Chaffee Bates Bell Wood Wotherspoon H. Scott Bliss March Pershing Hines Summerall MacArthur Craig Marshall Eisenhower Bradley Collins Ridgway Taylor Lemnitzer Decker Wheeler Johnson Westmoreland B. Palmer Abrams Weyand Rogers Meyer Wickham Vuono Sullivan Reimer Shinseki Schoomaker Casey Dempsey Odierno Milley McConville George Vice Chiefs of Staff Collins Haislip Hull Bolte W. Palmer Lemnitzer Decker Eddleman Hamlett Abrams Haines B. Palmer Haig Weyand Kerwin Kroesen Vessey Wickham Thurman A. 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Morton Dole Bush Smith Brock Richards Laxalt/Fahrenkopf Fahrenkopf Atwater Yeutter Bond Barbour Nicholson Gilmore Racicot Gillespie Mehlman Martínez/Duncan Duncan Steele Priebus McDaniel Whatley Chair elections 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 2021 2023 2024 Parties by state and territory State Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Territory American Samoa District of Columbia Guam Northern Mariana Islands Puerto Rico Virgin Islands Affiliated organizations Congress House Conference Legislative Digest Steering and Policy Committees Senate Conference Policy Committee Factions Freedom Caucus Problem Solvers Caucus Republican Governance Group Republican Study Committee Fundraising groups National Republican Congressional Committee National Republican Redistricting Trust National Republican Senatorial Committee Republican Attorneys General Association Republican Governors Association Sectional groups College Republicans Chairmen Congressional Hispanic Conference Log Cabin Republicans National Black Republican Association Republican Hindu Coalition Republican Jewish Coalition Republican National Hispanic Assembly Republicans Abroad Teen Age Republicans Young Republicans Republicans Overseas High School Republican National Federation Factional groups Republican Main Street Partnership Republican Majority for Choice Republican Liberty Caucus Republican National Coalition for Life ConservAmerica Liberty Caucus Ripon Society The Wish List Related Primaries Debates Bibliography International Democracy Union Timeline of modern American conservatism Trumpism v t e Presidents of the United States Presidents and presidencies George Washington (1789–1797) John Adams (1797–1801) Thomas Jefferson (1801–1809) James Madison (1809–1817) James Monroe (1817–1825) John Quincy Adams (1825–1829) Andrew Jackson (1829–1837) Martin Van Buren (1837–1841) William Henry Harrison (1841) John Tyler (1841–1845) James K. Polk (1845–1849) Zachary Taylor (1849–1850) Millard Fillmore (1850–1853) Franklin Pierce (1853–1857) James Buchanan (1857–1861) Abraham Lincoln (1861–1865) Andrew Johnson (1865–1869) Ulysses S. Grant (1869–1877) Rutherford B. Hayes (1877–1881) James A. Garfield (1881) Chester A. Arthur (1881–1885) Grover Cleveland (1885–1889) Benjamin Harrison (1889–1893) Grover Cleveland (1893–1897) William McKinley (1897–1901) Theodore Roosevelt (1901–1909) William Howard Taft (1909–1913) Woodrow Wilson (1913–1921) Warren G. Harding (1921–1923) Calvin Coolidge (1923–1929) Herbert Hoover (1929–1933) Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933–1945) Harry S. Truman (1945–1953) Dwight D. Eisenhower (1953–1961) John F. Kennedy (1961–1963) Lyndon B. Johnson (1963–1969) Richard Nixon (1969–1974) Gerald Ford (1974–1977) Jimmy Carter (1977–1981) Ronald Reagan (1981–1989) George H. W. Bush (1989–1993) Bill Clinton (1993–2001) George W. Bush (2001–2009) Barack Obama (2009–2017) Donald Trump (2017–2021) Joe Biden (2021–present) Presidency timelines Washington McKinley T. Roosevelt Taft Wilson Harding Coolidge Hoover F. D. Roosevelt Truman Eisenhower Kennedy L. B. Johnson Nixon Ford Carter Reagan G. H. W. Bush Clinton G. W. Bush Obama Trump Biden Category List v t e Cabinet of President Dwight D. Eisenhower (1953–1961) Cabinet Vice President Richard Nixon (1953–1961) Secretary of State John Foster Dulles (1953–1959) Christian Herter (1959–1961) Secretary of the Treasury George M. Humphrey (1953–1957) Robert B. Anderson (1957–1961) Secretary of Defense Charles Erwin Wilson (1953–1957) Neil H. McElroy (1957–1959) Thomas S. Gates Jr. (1959–1961) Attorney General Herbert Brownell Jr. (1953–1957) William P. Rogers (1957–1961) Postmaster General Arthur Summerfield (1953–1961) Secretary of the Interior Douglas McKay (1953–1956) Fred A. Seaton (1956–1961) Secretary of Agriculture Ezra Taft Benson (1953–1961) Secretary of Commerce Sinclair Weeks (1953–1958) Frederick H. Mueller (1959–1961) Secretary of Labor Martin Patrick Durkin (1953) James P. Mitchell (1953–1961) Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare Oveta Culp Hobby (1953–1955) Marion B. Folsom (1955–1958) Arthur Flemming (1958–1961) Cabinet-level Director of the Bureau of the Budget Joseph Dodge (1953–1954) Rowland Hughes (1954–1956) Percival Brundage (1956–1958) Maurice Stans (1958–1961) Ambassador to the United Nations Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. (1953–1960) James Jeremiah Wadsworth (1960–1961) Director of the Mutual Security Agency Harold Stassen (1953) Director of the Office of Defense Mobilization Arthur Flemming (1953–1957) Gordon Gray (1957–1958) Administrator of the Federal Civil Defense Administration Val Peterson (1953–1957) Leo Hoegh (1957–1958) Director of the Office of Civil and Defense Mobilization Leo Hoegh (1958–1961) Chair of the Atomic Energy Commission John A. McCone (1958–1961) White House Chief of Staff Sherman Adams (1953–1958) Wilton Persons (1958–1961) White House Deputy Chief of Staff Wilton Persons (1953–1958) Gerald D. Morgan (1958–1961) White House Cabinet Secretary Maxwell M. Rabb (1954–1958) Robert Keith Gray (1958–1961) v t e (← 1952) 1956 United States presidential election (→ 1960) Republican Party Convention Primaries Candidates Incumbent nominee: Dwight D. Eisenhower Incumbent VP nominee: Richard Nixon Democratic Party Convention Primaries Candidates Nominee: Adlai Stevenson II VP nominee: Estes Kefauver Other candidates: John S. Battle Happy Chandler James C. Davis W. Averell Harriman Lyndon B. Johnson Frank Lausche George Bell Timmerman Jr. Third-party and independent candidates American Vegetarian Party Nominee: Herbert M. Shelton VP nominee: Symon Gould Prohibition Party Nominee: Enoch A. Holtwick VP nominee: Herbert C. Holdridge Socialist Labor Party Nominee: Eric Hass VP nominee: Georgia Cozzini Socialist Party Nominee: Darlington Hoopes VP nominee: Samuel H. Friedman Socialist Workers Party Nominee: Farrell Dobbs VP nominee: Myra Tanner Weiss Independents and other candidates T. Coleman Andrews Gerald L. K. Smith Other 1956 elections: House Senate Template:Cold War figures v t e Time Persons of the Year 1927–1950 Charles Lindbergh (1927) Walter Chrysler (1928) Owen D. Young (1929) Mohandas Gandhi (1930) Pierre Laval (1931) Franklin D. Roosevelt (1932) Hugh S. Johnson (1933) Franklin D. Roosevelt (1934) Haile Selassie (1935) Wallis Simpson (1936) Chiang Kai-shek / Soong Mei-ling (1937) Adolf Hitler (1938) Joseph Stalin (1939) Winston Churchill (1940) Franklin D. Roosevelt (1941) Joseph Stalin (1942) George Marshall (1943) Dwight D. Eisenhower (1944) Harry S. Truman (1945) James F. Byrnes (1946) George Marshall (1947) Harry S. Truman (1948) Winston Churchill (1949) The American Fighting-Man (1950) 1951–1975 Mohammed Mosaddeq (1951) Elizabeth II (1952) Konrad Adenauer (1953) John Foster Dulles (1954) Harlow Curtice (1955) Hungarian Freedom Fighters (1956) Nikita Khrushchev (1957) Charles de Gaulle (1958) Dwight D. Eisenhower (1959) U.S. Scientists: George Beadle / Charles Draper / John Enders / Donald A. Glaser / Joshua Lederberg / Willard Libby / Linus Pauling / Edward Purcell / Isidor Rabi / Emilio Segrè / William Shockley / Edward Teller / Charles Townes / James Van Allen / Robert Woodward (1960) John F. Kennedy (1961) Pope John XXIII (1962) Martin Luther King Jr. (1963) Lyndon B. Johnson (1964) William Westmoreland (1965) The Generation Twenty-Five and Under (1966) Lyndon B. Johnson (1967) The Apollo 8 Astronauts: William Anders / Frank Borman / Jim Lovell (1968) The Middle Americans (1969) Willy Brandt (1970) Richard Nixon (1971) Henry Kissinger / Richard Nixon (1972) John Sirica (1973) King Faisal (1974) American Women: Susan Brownmiller / Kathleen Byerly / Alison Cheek / Jill Conway / Betty Ford / Ella Grasso / Carla Hills / Barbara Jordan / Billie Jean King / Susie Sharp / Carol Sutton / Addie Wyatt (1975) 1976–2000 Jimmy Carter (1976) Anwar Sadat (1977) Deng Xiaoping (1978) Ayatollah Khomeini (1979) Ronald Reagan (1980) Lech Wałęsa (1981) The Computer (1982) Ronald Reagan / Yuri Andropov (1983) Peter Ueberroth (1984) Deng Xiaoping (1985) Corazon Aquino (1986) Mikhail Gorbachev (1987) The Endangered Earth (1988) Mikhail Gorbachev (1989) George H. W. Bush (1990) Ted Turner (1991) Bill Clinton (1992) The Peacemakers: Yasser Arafat / F. W. de Klerk / Nelson Mandela / Yitzhak Rabin (1993) Pope John Paul II (1994) Newt Gingrich (1995) David Ho (1996) Andrew Grove (1997) Bill Clinton / Ken Starr (1998) Jeff Bezos (1999) George W. Bush (2000) 2001–present Rudolph Giuliani (2001) The Whistleblowers: Cynthia Cooper / Coleen Rowley / Sherron Watkins (2002) The American Soldier (2003) George W. Bush (2004) The Good Samaritans: Bono / Bill Gates / Melinda Gates (2005) You (2006) Vladimir Putin (2007) Barack Obama (2008) Ben Bernanke (2009) Mark Zuckerberg (2010) The Protester (2011) Barack Obama (2012) Pope Francis (2013) Ebola Fighters: Dr. Jerry Brown / Dr. Kent Brantly / Ella Watson-Stryker / Foday Gollah / Salome Karwah (2014) Angela Merkel (2015) Donald Trump (2016) The Silence Breakers (2017) The Guardians: Jamal Khashoggi / Maria Ressa / Wa Lone / Kyaw Soe Oo / Staff of The Capital (2018) Greta Thunberg (2019) Joe Biden / Kamala Harris (2020) Elon Musk (2021) Volodymyr Zelenskyy / Spirit of Ukraine (2022) Taylor Swift (2023) Donald Trump (2024)

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