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The writings of 1st century Romano-Jewish historian Flavius Josephus on Jesus are important non-Christian historical documents that could, if genuine, shed light on the origins of Christianity. Josephus' Antiquities of the Jews, written around 93–94 AD, includes two references to Jesus in Books 18 and 20 and a reference to John the Baptist in Book 18. These references found in Antiquities have no parallel texts in the other work by Josephus such as The Jewish War.

In Book 20, Chapter 9, 1 of the Antiquities Josephus refers to the death of "the brother of Jesus, who was called Christ, whose name was James". Some authors who think this passage is authentic also believe the James referred to is most likely James the first bishop of Jerusalem who is also called James the Just in Christian literature The majority of scholars consider both the reference to "the brother of Jesus called Christ" and the entire passage that includes it as authentic. Scholars generally consider this passage to have the highest level of authenticity among the references of Josephus to Christianity.

In Book 18, Chapter 5, 2 of the Antiquities Josephus refers to the imprisonment (and death) of John the Baptist by order of Herod Antipas and states that the Jews of that time attributed Herod's defeat (historically established as 36 AD) by Aretas IV of Nabatea to Herod's unjust execution of John. Almost all modern scholars consider this Josephus passage about John to be authentic in its entirety. Given that the death of John also appears in the Christian gospels, this passage is considered an important connection between the events Josephus recorded, the chronology of the gospels and the dates for the Ministry of Jesus.

In Book 18, Chapter 3, 3 of the Antiquities Josephus refers to the execution of Jesus by Pontius Pilate. This passage is generally called the Testimonium Flavianum. It is the most discussed passage in all of Josephus' writings and perhaps in all ancient literature. Scholars have differing views on the authenticity of the Testimonium. The general scholarly view is that while the Testimonium Flavianum is most likely not authentic in its entirety, it originally consisted of an authentic nucleus with a reference to the execution of Jesus by Pilate which was then subject to interpolation. A number of scholars suggest a relationship between the Testimonium and the reference to James the brother of Jesus, viewing the Testimonium as the initial reference to Jesus, which is then referred to again in the passage on James in Book 20.

James the brother of Jesus

And now Caesar, upon hearing the death of Festus, sent Albinus into Judea, as procurator. But the king deprived Joseph of the high priesthood, and bestowed the succession to that dignity on the son of Ananus, who was also himself called Ananus... Festus was now dead, and Albinus was but upon the road; so he assembled the sanhedrin of judges, and brought before them the brother of Jesus, who was called Christ, whose name was James, and some others; and when he had formed an accusation against them as breakers of the law, he delivered them to be stoned.

In the Antiquities of the Jews (Book 20, Chapter 9, 1) Josephus refers to the stoning of "James the brother of Jesus" by order of Ananus ben Ananus, a Herodian-era High Priest who died c. 68 AD. The James referred to in this passage is most likely James the first bishop of Jerusalem who is also called James the Just in Christian literature, and to whom the Epistle of James has been attributed. The translations of Josephus' writing into other languages have at times included passages that are not found in the Greek texts, raising the possibility of interpolation, but this passage on James is found in all manuscripts, including the Greek texts.

The context of the passage is the period following the death of Porcius Festus, and the journey to Alexandria by Lucceius Albinus, the new Roman Procurator of Judea, who held that position from 62 AD to 64 AD. Because the Albinus' journey to Alexandria had to have concluded no later than the summer of 62 AD, the date of james' death can be assigned with some certainty to around that year. The 2nd century chronicler Hegesippus also left an account of the death of James, and while the details he provides diverge from those of Josephus, the two accounts share similar elements.

Modern scholarship overwhelmingly views the entire passage, including its reference to "the brother of Jesus called Christ", as authentic and has rejected its being the result of later interpolation. Moreover, in comparison with Hegesippus' account of James' death, most scholars consider Josephus' to be the more historically reliable. However, a few scholars still question the authenticity of the reference, based on various arguments, but primarily based on the observation that various details in The Jewish War differ from it.

John the Baptist

Now some of the Jews thought that the destruction of Herod's army came from God, and that very justly, as a punishment of what he did against John, that was called the Baptist: for Herod slew him, who was a good man... Herod, who feared lest the great influence John had over the people might put it into his power and inclination to raise a rebellion... Accordingly he was sent a prisoner, out of Herod's suspicious temper, to Macherus, the castle I before mentioned, and was there put to death.

In the Antiquities of the Jews (Book 18, Chapter 5, 2) Josephus refers to the imprisonment and death of John the Baptist by order of Herod Antipas, the ruler of Galilee and Perea. The context of this reference is the 36 AD defeat of Herod Antipas in his conflict with Aretas IV of Nabatea, which the Jews of the time attributed to misfortune brought about by Herod's unjust execution of John.

Almost all modern scholars consider this passage to be authentic in its entirety, although a small number of authors have questioned it. Because the death of John also appears prominently in the Christian gospels, this passage is considered an important connection between the events Josephus recorded, the chronology of the gospels and the dates for the Ministry of Jesus. A few scholars have questioned the authenticity of the passage, contending that the absence of Christian tampering or interpolation does not itself prove authenticity. While this passage is the only reference to John the Baptist outside the New Testament, it is widely seen by most scholars as confirming the historicity of the baptisms that John performed.

While both the gospels and Josephus refer to Herod Antipas killing John the Baptist, they differ on the details and the motive. While the gospels present this as a consequence of the marriage of Herod Antipas and Herodias in defiance of Jewish law (as in Matthew 14:4, Mark 6:18) Josephus refers to it as a pre-emptive measure by Herod to quell a possible uprising.

While Josephus identifies the location of the imprisonment of John as Machaerus, southeast of the mouth of the Jordan river, the gospels mention no location for the place where John was imprisoned. However, according to other historical accounts Machaerus was rebuilt by Herod the Great around 30 AD and then passed to Herod Antipas. The 36 AD date of the conflict with Aretas IV mentioned by Josephus is, however, consistent (and shortly after) the approximate date of the marriage of Herod Antipas and Herodias estimated by other historical methods.

Testimonium Flavianum

Now there was about this time Jesus, a wise man, if it be lawful to call him a man; for he was a doer of wonderful works, a teacher of such men as receive the truth with pleasure. He drew over to him both many of the Jews and many of the Gentiles. He was Christ. And when Pilate, at the suggestion of the principal men amongst us, had condemned him to the cross, those that loved him at the first did not forsake him; for he appeared to them alive again the third day; as the divine prophets had foretold these and ten thousand other wonderful things concerning him. And the tribe of Christians, so named from him, are not extinct at this day.

The Testimonium Flavianum (meaning the testimony of Flavius ) is the name given to the passage found in Book 18, Chapter 3, 3 of the Antiquities in which Josephus describes the condemnation and crucifixion of Jesus at the hands of the Roman authorities. The Testimonium is likely the most discussed passage in Josephus and perhaps in all ancient literature.

The earliest secure reference to this passage is found in the writings of the fourth-century Christian apologist and historian Eusebius, who used Josephus' works extensively as a source for his own Historia Ecclesiastica. Writing no later than 324, Eusebius quotes the passage in essentially the same form as that preserved in extant manuscripts. It has therefore been suggested that part or all of the passage may have been Eusebius' own invention, in order to provide an outside Jewish authority for the life of Christ. However, it is also possible that others, including the third-century patristic writer Origen also knew of the passage. Although Origen makes no direct reference to the Testimonium, the way in which he writes about the passage involving James (see above) suggests he may have been familiar with this passage as well. While this does not furnish direct evidence, it has been used by a number of scholars to argue that the passage is not the product of a Eusebian interpolation.

Of the three passages found in Josephus' Antiquities, this passage, if authentic, would offer the most direct support for the crucifixion of Jesus. The general scholarly view is that while the Testimonium Flavianum is most likely not authentic in its entirety, it originally consisted of an authentic nucleus with a reference to the execution of Jesus by Pilate which was then subject to interpolation. Among other things, the authenticity of this passage would help make sense of the later reference in Josephus Antiquities of the Jews Book 20, Chapter 9, 1 where Josephus refers to the stoning of "James the brother of Jesus". A number of scholars argue that the reference to Jesus in this later passage as "the aforementioned Christ" relates to the earlier reference in the Testimonium.

Ancient and medieval sources

Extant manuscripts

Josephus wrote all of his surviving works after his establishment in Rome (c. 71AD) under the patronage of the Flavian Emperor Vespasian. As is common with ancient texts, however, there are no surviving extant manuscripts of Josephus' works that can be dated before the 11th century, and the oldest of these are all Greek minuscules, copied by Christian monks. (Jews did not preserve the writings of Josephus because they considered him to be a traitor.)

There are about 120 extant Greek manuscripts of Josephus, of which 33 predate the 14th century, with two thirds from the Comnenoi period. The earliest surviving Greek manuscript that contains the Testimonium is the 11th century Ambrosianus 370 (F 128), preserved in the Biblioteca Ambrosiana in Milan, which includes almost all of the second half of the Antiquities. There are about 170 extant Latin translations of Josephus, some of which go back to the sixth century, and according to Louis Feldman have proven very useful in reconstructing the Josephus texts through comparisons with the Greek manuscripts, reconfirming proper names and filling in gaps.

There is considerable evidence, however, that attests to the existence of the references to Jesus in Josephus well before then, including a number of ad hoc copies of Josephus' work preserved in quotation from the works of Christian writers. The earliest known such reference to Josephus' work is found in the writings of the third century patristic author Origen, although he does not provide any direct reference to the passages involving Jesus. The first witness to any of the passages relating to Jesus was Eusebius of Caesarea, writing in the first decades of the fourth century. Both Origen and Eusebius had access to the Greek versions of Josephus' texts. The works of Josephus were translated into Latin during the fourth century (possibly by Rufinus), and, in the same century, the Jewish War was "partially rewritten as an anti-Jewish treatise, known today as Pseudo-Hegesippus, but was considered for over a millenium and a half by many Christians as the ipsissima verba of Josephus to his own people."

Because manuscript transmission was done by hand-copying, typically by monastic scribes, almost all ancient texts have been subject to both accidental and deliberate alterations, emendations (called interpolation) or elisions. It is both the lack of any original corroborating manuscript source outside the Christian tradition as well as the practice of Christian interpolation that has led to the scholarly debate regarding the authenticity of Josephus' references to Jesus in his work. Although there is no doubt that most (but not all) of the later copies of the Antiquities contained references to Jesus and John the Baptist, it cannot be definitively shown that these were original to Josephus writings, and were not instead added later by Christian interpolators. Much of the scholarly work concerning the references to Jesus in Josephus has thus concentrated on close textual analysis of the Josephan corpus to determine the degree to which the language, as preserved in both early Christian quotations and the later transmissions, should be considered authentic.

Slavonic Josephus

The three references found in Book 18 and Book 20 of the Antiquities do not appear in any other versions of Josephus' The Jewish War except for a Slavonic version of the Testimonium Flavomium (at times called Testimonium Slavonium) which surfaced in the west at the beginning of the 20th century, after its discovery in Russia at the end of the 19th century.

Although originally hailed as authentic (notably by Robert Eisler), it is now almost universally acknowledged by scholars to have been the product of an 11th century creation as part of a larger ideological struggle against the Khazars. As a result, it has little place in the ongoing debate over the authenticity and nature of the references to Jesus in the Antiquities. Craig A Evans states that although some scholars had in the past supported the Slavonic Josephus, "to my knowledge no one today believes that they contain anything of value for Jesus research".

Arabic and Syriac Josephus

In 1971, a 10th century Arabic version of the Testimonium due to Agapius of Hierapolis was brought to light by Shlomo Pines who also discovered a 12th century Syriac version of Josephus by Michael the Syrian. These additional manuscript sources of the Testimonium have furnished additional ways to evaluate Josephus' mention of Jesus in the Antiquities, principally through a close textual comparison between the Arabic, Syriac and Greek versions to the Testimonium.

There are subtle yet key differences between the Greek manuscripts and these texts. For instance, the Arabic version does not blame the Jews for the death of Jesus. The key phrase "at the suggestion of the principle men among us" reads instead "Pilate condemned him to be crucified". And instead of "he was Christ," the Syriac version has the phrase "he was believed to be Christ". Drawing on these textual variations, scholars have suggested that these versions of the Testimonium more closely reflect what a non-Christian Jew may have written.

Early References

In the 3rd century, Origen of Alexandria was the first ancient writer to have a comprehensive reference to Josephus, although some other authors had made smaller, general references to Josephus before then, e.g. Justin Martyr and Irenaeus in the second century, followed by Clement. Origen explicitly mentions the name of Josephus 11 times, both in Greek and Latin. However, despite the fact that most of Origen's works only survive in Latin translations, 10 out of the 11 references are in the original Greek.

The context for Origen's references is his defense of Christianity. In Contra Celsum (Book I, Chapter XLVII) as Origen defends the Christian practice of baptism, he recounts Josephus' reference to the baptisms performed by John the Baptist for the sake of purification. In Book II, Chapter XIII Origen mentions Josephus' reference to the death of James. And again in his Commentary on Matthew (Book X, Chapter 17) Origen refers to Josephus' Antiquities of the Jews by name and that Josephus had stated that the death of James had brought a wrath upon those who had killed him.

The 4th century writings of Eusebius of Caesarea refer to Josephus' account of James, John and Jesus. In his Church History (Book I, Chapter XI) Eusebius discusses the Josephus reference to how Herod Antipas killed John the Baptist, and mentions the marriage to Herodias in items 1 to 6. In the same Book I chapter, in items 7 and 8 Eusebius also discusses the Josephus reference to the crucifixion of Jesus by Pontius Pilate, a reference that is present in all surviving Eusebius manuscripts.

In Book II, Chapter 23.20 of his Church History, Eusebius describes the death of James according to Josephus. In that chapter, Eusebius first describes the background including Festus, and mentions Clement and Hegesippus. In item 20 of that chapter Eusebius then mentions Josephus' reference to the death of James and the sufferings that befell those who killed him. However, Eusebius does not acknowledge Origen as one of his sources for the reference to James in Josephus.

See also

• Christianity in the 1st century
• Early Christianity
• Historicity of Jesus
• Roman Judea

Notes

1. ^ Feldman & Hata 1987.
2. ^ Flavius Josephus & Maier 1995, p. 285.
3. Flavius Josephus & Maier 1995, p. 12.
4. ^ Harding 2003, p. 317.
5. ^ Painter 2005, pp. 134–141.
6. ^ Freedman, Myers & Beck 2000, p. 670.
7. ^ Van Voorst 2000, p. 83.
8. ^ Bauckham 1999, pp. 199–203.
9. ^ Evans 2006, pp. 55–58.
10. ^ Bromiley 1982, pp. 694–695.
11. ^ White 2010, p. 48.
12. ^ Feldman 1992.
13. ^ Schreckenberg & Schubert 1992a, pp. 38–41.
14. ^ Kostenberger, Kellum & Quarles 2009, pp. 104–108.
15. ^ Evans 2001, p. 316.
16. ^ Wansbrough 2004, p. 185.
17. ^ Vermes, 2011 & 33-44. sfn error: no target: CITEREFVermes201133-44 (help)
18. Flavius Josephus: Antiquities of the Jews Book 20, Chapter 9, 1 Text at Wikisource
19. Neale 2003, pp. 2–3.
20. ^ Mitchell & Young 2006, p. 297.
21. ^ Painter 2004, p. 126.
22. Richard Bauckham states that although a few scholars have questioned this passage, "the vast majority have considered it to be authentic" (Bauckham 1999, pp. 199–203).
23. Habermas 1996, pp. 33–37.
24. Houlden 2003, p. 660.
25. Wells 1986, p. 11.
26. Flavius Josephus: Antiquities of the Jews Book 18, 5, 2 Text at Wikisource
27. Dapaah 2005, p. 48.
28. Hoehner 1983, pp. 125–127.
29. Flavius Josephus, Whiston & Maier 1999, pp. 662–63.
30. Herrmann 1970.
31. Rothschild 2011, pp. 257–258.
32. Murphy 2003, p. 2003.
33. Jonas & Lopez 2010, pp. 95–96.
34. Chilton & Evans 1998, pp. 187–198.
35. Houlden 2003, pp. 508–509.
36. Meyers, Craven & Kraemer 2001, pp. 92–93.
37. Jensen 2010, pp. 42–43.
38. ^ Freedman, Myers & Beck 2000, p. 842.
39. ^ Gillman 2003, pp. 25–31.
40. Knoblet 2005, pp. 15–17.
41. Hoehner 1983, p. 131.
42. Flavius Josephus: Antiquities of the Jews, Book 18, Chapter 3, 3 Text at Wikisource
43. Flavius Josephus, Whiston & Maier 1999, p. 662.
44. ^ Louth 1990.
45. McGiffert 2007.
46. Olson 1999.
47. Wallace-Hadrill 2011.
48. Origen writes, "It may be questioned whether the Jews thought Jesus a man," which appears to make reference to the language in the Testimonium. (Flavius Josephus, Whiston & Maier 1999, pp. 995–996)
49. Feldman & Hata 1989, p. 431.
50. Flavius Josephus et al. 2003, p. 26.
51. Baras 1987, p. 369.
52. Mason 2001, p. LI.
53. Josephus: all the Manuscripts
54. Feldman 1984.
55. Bowman 2011, pp. 186–187.
56. For example, an ancient Table of Contents of the eighteenth book of the Antiquities omits any reference to the passage about Jesus, as does the Josephus codex of the patriarch Photius. Nor is it clear if the Testimonium existed in the Josephus exemplar used by Origen. See Schreckenberg & Schubert 1992b, pp. 57–58.
57. Van Voorst 2000, p. 85.
58. Creed 1932.
59. ^ Bowman 1987, pp. 373–374.
60. Chilton & Evans 1998, p. 451.
61. Pines 1971, p. 19.
62. ^ Maier 2007, pp. 336–337.
63. Feldman 2006, pp. 329–330.
64. Van Voorst 2000, p. 97.
65. The historical Jesus: ancient evidence for the life of Christ by Gary R. Habermas 1996 ISBN page 194
66. ^ Mizugaki 1987.
67. Flavius Josephus, Whiston & Maier 1999, p. 15.
68. Painter 2005, p. 205.
69. Bartlett 1985, pp. 92–94.
70. Painter 2005, pp. 155–167.

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Painter, John (2004). "Who was James?". In Chilton, Bruce; Neusner, Jacob (eds.). The brother of Jesus: James the Just and his mission. ISBN 0814651526. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Pines, Shlomo (1971). An Arabic version of the Testimonium Flavianum and its implications. Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Rothschild, Claire (2011). ""Echo of a Whisper": The Uncertain Authenticity of Josephus' Witness to John the Baptist". In Hellholm, David; Vegge, Tor; Norderval, Øyvind; Hellholm, Christer (eds.). Ablution, Initiation, and Baptism: Late Antiquity, Early Judaism, and Early Christianity. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-024751-0. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Schreckenberg, Heinz; Schubert, Kurt (1992a). Jewish Traditions in Early Christian Literature. Vol. 2. ISBN 9023226534. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Schreckenberg, Heinz; Schubert, Kurt (1992b). Jewish Historiography and Iconography in Early and Medieval Christianity. Assen: Van Gorcum. ISBN 90-232-2653-4. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Van Voorst, Robert E. (2000). Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. ISBN 0-8028-4368-9. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Vermes, Geza (2011). Jesus in the Jewish World. ISBN 0334043794. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Wallace-Hadrill, D. S. (2011). "Eusebius of Caesarea and the Testimonium Flavianum (Josephus, Antiquities, XVIII. 63f.)". The Journal of Ecclesiastical History. 25 (4): 353. doi:10.1017/S0022046900049435. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Wansbrough, Henry (2004). Jesus and the oral Gospel tradition. ISBN 0567040909. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Wells, George Albert (1986). Did Jesus Exist?. Pemberton Publishing Co. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Wells, George Albert (1971). The Jesus of the early Christians. Pemberton Books. ISBN 0301-71014-7. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

White, Cynthia (2010). The Emergence of Christianity: Classical Traditions in Contemporary Perspective. ISBN 0800697472. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Zeitlin, Solomon (1948). "The Hoax of the 'Slavonic Josephus'". The Jewish Quarterly Review, New Series. 39 (2). {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Text "pages 172-177" ignored (help)

External links

• "Jewish Light on the Risen Lord", New Oxford Review, by Frederick W. Marks
• "Jesus in the eyes of Josephus" by Geza Vermes.

• Judeo-Christian topics
• Jesus and history
• Perspectives on Jesus
• Early Christianity and Judaism