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List of electromagnetism equations

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This article summarizes equations in the theory of electromagnetism.

Definitions

Lorentz force on a charged particle (of charge q) in motion (velocity v), used as the definition of the E field and B field.

Here subscripts e and m are used to differ between electric and magnetic charges. The definitions for monopoles are of theoretical interest, although real magnetic dipoles can be described using pole strengths. There are two possible units for monopole strength, Wb (Weber) and A m (Ampere metre). Dimensional analysis shows that magnetic charges relate by qm(Wb) = μ0 qm(Am).

Initial quantities

Quantity (common name/s) (Common) symbol/s SI units Dimension
Electric charge qe, q, Q C = As
Monopole strength, magnetic charge qm, g, p Wb or Am (Wb)

(Am)

Electric quantities

Continuous charge distribution. The volume charge density ρ is the amount of charge per unit volume (cube), surface charge density σ is amount per unit surface area (circle) with outward unit normal n̂, d is the dipole moment between two point charges, the volume density of these is the polarization density P. Position vector r is a point to calculate the electric field; r′ is a point in the charged object.

Contrary to the strong analogy between (classical) gravitation and electrostatics, there are no "centre of charge" or "centre of electrostatic attraction" analogues.

Electric transport

Quantity (common name/s) (Common) symbol/s Defining equation SI units Dimension
Linear, surface, volumetric charge density λe for Linear, σe for surface, ρe for volume. q e = ∫ λ e d ℓ {\displaystyle q_{e}=\int \lambda _{e}\mathrm {d} \ell }

q e = ∬ σ e d S {\displaystyle q_{e}=\iint \sigma _{e}\mathrm {d} S}

q e = ∭ ρ e d V {\displaystyle q_{e}=\iiint \rho _{e}\mathrm {d} V}

C m, n = 1, 2, 3
Capacitance C C = d q d V {\displaystyle C={\mathrm {d} q \over \mathrm {d} V}\,\!}

V = voltage, not volume.

F = C V
Electric current I I = d q d t {\displaystyle I={\mathrm {d} q \over \mathrm {d} t}\,\!} A
Electric current density J I = J ⋅ d S {\displaystyle I=\mathbf {J} \cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {S} } A m
Displacement current density Jd J d = ∂ D ∂ t = ε 0 ( ∂ E ∂ t ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {J} _{\mathrm {d} }={\partial \mathbf {D} \over \partial t}=\varepsilon _{0}\left({\partial \mathbf {E} \over \partial t}\right)\,\!} A m
Convection current density Jc J c = ρ v {\displaystyle \mathbf {J} _{\mathrm {c} }=\rho \mathbf {v} \,\!} A m

Electric fields

Quantity (common name/s) (Common) symbol/s Defining equation SI units Dimension
Electric field, field strength, flux density, potential gradient E E = F q {\displaystyle \mathbf {E} ={\mathbf {F} \over q}\,\!} N C = V m
Electric flux ΦE Φ E = ∫ S E ⋅ d A {\displaystyle \Phi _{E}=\int _{S}\mathbf {E} \cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {A} \,\!} N m C
Absolute permittivity; ε ε = ε r ε 0 {\displaystyle \varepsilon =\varepsilon _{r}\varepsilon _{0}\,\!} F m
Electric dipole moment p p = q a {\displaystyle \mathbf {p} =q\mathbf {a} \,\!}

a = charge separation directed from -ve to +ve charge

C m
Electric Polarization, polarization density P P = d ⟨ p ⟩ d V {\displaystyle \mathbf {P} ={\mathrm {d} \langle \mathbf {p} \rangle \over \mathrm {d} V}\,\!} C m
Electric displacement field, flux density D D = ε E = ε 0 E + P {\displaystyle \mathbf {D} =\varepsilon \mathbf {E} =\varepsilon _{0}\mathbf {E} +\mathbf {P} \,} C m
Electric displacement flux ΦD Φ D = ∫ S D ⋅ d A {\displaystyle \Phi _{D}=\int _{S}\mathbf {D} \cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {A} \,\!} C
Absolute electric potential, EM scalar potential relative to point r 0 {\displaystyle r_{0}\,\!}

Theoretical: r 0 = ∞ {\displaystyle r_{0}=\infty \,\!}
Practical: r 0 = R e a r t h {\displaystyle r_{0}=R_{\mathrm {earth} }\,\!} (Earth's radius)

 φ ,V V = − W ∞ r q = − 1 q ∫ ∞ r F ⋅ d r = − ∫ r 1 r 2 E ⋅ d r {\displaystyle V=-{\frac {W_{\infty r}}{q}}=-{\frac {1}{q}}\int _{\infty }^{r}\mathbf {F} \cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {r} =-\int _{r_{1}}^{r_{2}}\mathbf {E} \cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {r} \,\!} V = J C
Voltage, Electric potential difference Δφ,ΔV Δ V = − Δ W q = − 1 q ∫ r 1 r 2 F ⋅ d r = − ∫ r 1 r 2 E ⋅ d r {\displaystyle \Delta V=-{\frac {\Delta W}{q}}=-{\frac {1}{q}}\int _{r_{1}}^{r_{2}}\mathbf {F} \cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {r} =-\int _{r_{1}}^{r_{2}}\mathbf {E} \cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {r} \,\!} V = J C

Magnetic quantities

Magnetic transport

Quantity (common name/s) (Common) symbol/s Defining equation SI units Dimension
Linear, surface, volumetric pole density λm for Linear, σm for surface, ρm for volume. q m = ∫ λ m d ℓ {\displaystyle q_{m}=\int \lambda _{m}\mathrm {d} \ell }

q m = ∬ σ m d S {\displaystyle q_{m}=\iint \sigma _{m}\mathrm {d} S}

q m = ∭ ρ m d V {\displaystyle q_{m}=\iiint \rho _{m}\mathrm {d} V}

Wb m

A m,
n = 1, 2, 3

(Wb)

(Am)

Monopole current Im I m = d q m d t {\displaystyle I_{m}={\mathrm {d} q_{m} \over \mathrm {dt} }\,\!} Wb s

A m s

(Wb)

(Am)

Monopole current density Jm I = ∬ J m ⋅ d A {\displaystyle I=\iint \mathbf {J} _{\mathrm {m} }\cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {A} } Wb s m

A m s

(Wb)

(Am)

Magnetic fields

Quantity (common name/s) (Common) symbol/s Defining equation SI units Dimension
Magnetic field, field strength, flux density, induction field B F = q e ( v × B ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} =q_{e}\left(\mathbf {v} \times \mathbf {B} \right)\,\!} T = N A m = Wb m
Magnetic potential, EM vector potential A B = ∇ × A {\displaystyle \mathbf {B} =\nabla \times \mathbf {A} } T m = N A = Wb m
Magnetic flux ΦB Φ B = ∫ S B ⋅ d A {\displaystyle \Phi _{B}=\int _{S}\mathbf {B} \cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {A} \,\!} Wb = T m
Magnetic permeability μ {\displaystyle \mu \,\!} μ   = μ r μ 0 {\displaystyle \mu \ =\mu _{r}\,\mu _{0}\,\!} V·s·A·m = N·A = T·m·A = Wb·A·m
Magnetic moment, magnetic dipole moment m, μB, Π

Two definitions are possible:

using pole strengths,
m = q m a {\displaystyle \mathbf {m} =q_{m}\mathbf {a} \,\!}

using currents:
m = N I A n ^ {\displaystyle \mathbf {m} =NIA\mathbf {\hat {n}} \,\!}

a = pole separation

N is the number of turns of conductor

A m
Magnetization M M = d ⟨ m ⟩ d V {\displaystyle \mathbf {M} ={\mathrm {d} \langle \mathbf {m} \rangle \over \mathrm {d} V}\,\!} A m
Magnetic field intensity, (AKA field strength) H Two definitions are possible:

most common:
B = μ H = μ 0 ( H + M ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {B} =\mu \mathbf {H} =\mu _{0}\left(\mathbf {H} +\mathbf {M} \right)\,}

using pole strengths,
H = F q m {\displaystyle \mathbf {H} ={\mathbf {F} \over q_{m}}\,}

A m
Intensity of magnetization, magnetic polarization I, J I = μ 0 M {\displaystyle \mathbf {I} =\mu _{0}\mathbf {M} \,\!} T = N A m = Wb m
Self Inductance L Two equivalent definitions are possible:

L = N ( d Φ d I ) {\displaystyle L=N\left({\mathrm {d} \Phi \over \mathrm {d} I}\right)\,\!}

L ( d I d t ) = − N V {\displaystyle L\left({\mathrm {d} I \over \mathrm {d} t}\right)=-NV\,\!}

H = Wb A
Mutual inductance M Again two equivalent definitions are possible:

M 1 = N ( d Φ 2 d I 1 ) {\displaystyle M_{1}=N\left({\mathrm {d} \Phi _{2} \over \mathrm {d} I_{1}}\right)\,\!}

M ( d I 2 d t ) = − N V 1 {\displaystyle M\left({\mathrm {d} I_{2} \over \mathrm {d} t}\right)=-NV_{1}\,\!}

1,2 subscripts refer to two conductors/inductors mutually inducing voltage/ linking magnetic flux through each other. They can be interchanged for the required conductor/inductor;

M 2 = N ( d Φ 1 d I 2 ) {\displaystyle M_{2}=N\left({\mathrm {d} \Phi _{1} \over \mathrm {d} I_{2}}\right)\,\!}
M ( d I 1 d t ) = − N V 2 {\displaystyle M\left({\mathrm {d} I_{1} \over \mathrm {d} t}\right)=-NV_{2}\,\!}

H = Wb A
Gyromagnetic ratio (for charged particles in a magnetic field) γ ω = γ B {\displaystyle \omega =\gamma B\,\!} Hz T

Electric circuits

DC circuits, general definitions

Main article: Direct current
Quantity (common name/s) (Common) symbol/s Defining equation SI units Dimension
Terminal Voltage for

Power Supply

Vter V = J C
Load Voltage for Circuit Vload V = J C
Internal resistance of power supply Rint R i n t = V t e r I {\displaystyle R_{\mathrm {int} }={V_{\mathrm {ter} } \over I}\,\!} Ω = V A = J s C
Load resistance of circuit Rext R e x t = V l o a d I {\displaystyle R_{\mathrm {ext} }={V_{\mathrm {load} } \over I}\,\!} Ω = V A = J s C
Electromotive force (emf), voltage across entire circuit including power supply, external components and conductors E E = V t e r + V l o a d {\displaystyle {\mathcal {E}}=V_{\mathrm {ter} }+V_{\mathrm {load} }\,\!} V = J C

AC circuits

Main articles: Alternating current and Resonance
Quantity (common name/s) (Common) symbol/s Defining equation SI units Dimension
Resistive load voltage VR V R = I R R {\displaystyle V_{R}=I_{R}R\,\!} V = J C
Capacitive load voltage VC V C = I C X C {\displaystyle V_{C}=I_{C}X_{C}\,\!} V = J C
Inductive load voltage VL V L = I L X L {\displaystyle V_{L}=I_{L}X_{L}\,\!} V = J C
Capacitive reactance XC X C = 1 ω d C {\displaystyle X_{C}={\frac {1}{\omega _{\mathrm {d} }C}}\,\!} Ω m
Inductive reactance XL X L = ω d L {\displaystyle X_{L}=\omega _{d}L\,\!} Ω m
AC electrical impedance Z V = I Z {\displaystyle V=IZ\,\!}

Z = R 2 + ( X L − X C ) 2 {\displaystyle Z={\sqrt {R^{2}+\left(X_{L}-X_{C}\right)^{2}}}\,\!}

Ω m
Phase constant δ, φ tan ⁡ ϕ = X L − X C R {\displaystyle \tan \phi ={\frac {X_{L}-X_{C}}{R}}\,\!} dimensionless dimensionless
AC peak current I0 I 0 = I r m s 2 {\displaystyle I_{0}=I_{\mathrm {rms} }{\sqrt {2}}\,\!} A
AC root mean square current Irms I r m s = 1 T ∫ 0 T [ I ( t ) ] 2 d t {\displaystyle I_{\mathrm {rms} }={\sqrt {{\frac {1}{T}}\int _{0}^{T}\left^{2}\mathrm {d} t}}\,\!} A
AC peak voltage V0 V 0 = V r m s 2 {\displaystyle V_{0}=V_{\mathrm {rms} }{\sqrt {2}}\,\!} V = J C
AC root mean square voltage Vrms V r m s = 1 T ∫ 0 T [ V ( t ) ] 2 d t {\displaystyle V_{\mathrm {rms} }={\sqrt {{\frac {1}{T}}\int _{0}^{T}\left^{2}\mathrm {d} t}}\,\!} V = J C
AC emf, root mean square E r m s , ⟨ E ⟩ {\displaystyle {\mathcal {E}}_{\mathrm {rms} },{\sqrt {\langle {\mathcal {E}}\rangle }}\,\!} E r m s = E m / 2 {\displaystyle {\mathcal {E}}_{\mathrm {rms} }={\mathcal {E}}_{\mathrm {m} }/{\sqrt {2}}\,\!} V = J C
AC average power ⟨ P ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle P\rangle \,\!} ⟨ P ⟩ = E I r m s cos ⁡ ϕ {\displaystyle \langle P\rangle ={\mathcal {E}}I_{\mathrm {rms} }\cos \phi \,\!} W = J s
Capacitive time constant τC τ C = R C {\displaystyle \tau _{C}=RC\,\!} s
Inductive time constant τL τ L = L R {\displaystyle \tau _{L}={L \over R}\,\!} s

Magnetic circuits

Main article: Magnetic circuits
Quantity (common name/s) (Common) symbol/s Defining equation SI units Dimension
Magnetomotive force, mmf F, F , M {\displaystyle {\mathcal {F}},{\mathcal {M}}} M = N I {\displaystyle {\mathcal {M}}=NI}

N = number of turns of conductor

A

Electromagnetism

Electric fields

Summary of electrostatic relations between electric potential, electric field and charge density. Here, r = x − x ′ {\displaystyle \mathbf {r} =\mathbf {x} -\mathbf {x'} } .

General Classical Equations

Physical situation Equations
Electric potential gradient and field E = − ∇ V {\displaystyle \mathbf {E} =-\nabla V}

Δ V = − ∫ r 1 r 2 E ⋅ d r {\displaystyle \Delta V=-\int _{r_{1}}^{r_{2}}\mathbf {E} \cdot d\mathbf {r} \,\!}

Point charge E ( r ) = q 4 π ε 0 r ^ | r | 2 = q 4 π ε 0 r | r | 3 {\displaystyle \mathbf {E} (\mathbf {r} )={q \over 4\pi \varepsilon _{0}}{{\hat {\mathbf {r} }} \over {|\mathbf {r} |}^{2}}={q \over 4\pi \varepsilon _{0}}{\mathbf {r} \over {|\mathbf {r} |}^{3}}\,\!}
At a point in a local array of point charges E ( r ) = 1 4 π ε 0 ∑ i = 1 n q i r ^ i | r i − r | 2 = 1 4 π ε 0 ∑ i = 1 n q i r i | r i − r | 3 {\displaystyle \mathbf {E} (\mathbf {r} )={1 \over 4\pi \varepsilon _{0}}\sum _{i=1}^{n}q_{i}{{\hat {\mathbf {r} }}_{i} \over {|\mathbf {r_{i}-r} |}^{2}}={1 \over 4\pi \varepsilon _{0}}\sum _{i=1}^{n}q_{i}{\mathbf {r} _{i} \over {|\mathbf {r_{i}-r} |}^{3}}}
At a point due to a continuum of charge E ( r ) = 1 4 π ε 0 ∭ ρ ( r ′ ) r ′ | r ′ | 3 d 3 | r ′ | {\displaystyle \mathbf {E} (\mathbf {r} )={\frac {1}{4\pi \varepsilon _{0}}}\iiint \,\rho (\mathbf {r} '){\mathbf {r} ' \over {|\mathbf {r} '|}^{3}}\mathrm {d} ^{3}|\mathbf {r} '|}
Electrostatic torque and potential energy due to non-uniform fields and dipole moments τ = ∫ V d p × E {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\tau }}=\int _{V}\mathrm {d} \mathbf {p} \times \mathbf {E} }

U = − ∫ V d p ⋅ E {\displaystyle U=-\int _{V}\mathrm {d} \mathbf {p} \cdot \mathbf {E} }

Magnetic fields and moments

See also: Magnetic moment
Summary of magnetostatic relations between magnetic vector potential, magnetic field and current density. Here, r = x − x ′ {\displaystyle \mathbf {r} =\mathbf {x} -\mathbf {x'} } .

General classical equations

Physical situation Equations
Magnetic potential, EM vector potential B = ∇ × A {\displaystyle \mathbf {B} =\nabla \times \mathbf {A} }
Due to a magnetic moment A = μ 0 4 π m × r | r | 3 {\displaystyle \mathbf {A} ={\frac {\mu _{0}}{4\pi }}{\frac {\mathbf {m} \times \mathbf {r} }{\left|\mathbf {r} \right|^{3}}}}

B ( r ) = ∇ × A = μ 0 4 π ( 3 r ( m ⋅ r ) | r | 5 − m | r | 3 ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {B} ({\mathbf {r} })=\nabla \times {\mathbf {A} }={\frac {\mu _{0}}{4\pi }}\left({\frac {3\mathbf {r} (\mathbf {m} \cdot \mathbf {r} )}{\left|\mathbf {r} \right|^{5}}}-{\frac {\mathbf {m} }{\left|\mathbf {r} \right|^{3}}}\right)}

Magnetic moment due to a current distribution m = 1 2 ∫ V r × J d V {\displaystyle \mathbf {m} ={\frac {1}{2}}\int _{V}\mathbf {r} \times \mathbf {J} \mathrm {d} V}
Magnetostatic torque and potential energy due to non-uniform fields and dipole moments τ = ∫ V d m × B {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\tau }}=\int _{V}\mathrm {d} \mathbf {m} \times \mathbf {B} }

U = − ∫ V d m ⋅ B {\displaystyle U=-\int _{V}\mathrm {d} \mathbf {m} \cdot \mathbf {B} }

Electric circuits and electronics

Below N = number of conductors or circuit components. Subscript net refers to the equivalent and resultant property value.

Physical situation Nomenclature Series Parallel
Resistors and conductors
  • Ri = resistance of resistor or conductor i
  • Gi = conductance of resistor or conductor i
 R n e t = ∑ i = 1 N R i {\displaystyle R_{\mathrm {net} }=\sum _{i=1}^{N}R_{i}\,\!}

1 G n e t = ∑ i = 1 N 1 G i {\displaystyle {1 \over G_{\mathrm {net} }}=\sum _{i=1}^{N}{1 \over G_{i}}\,\!}

1 R n e t = ∑ i = 1 N 1 R i {\displaystyle {1 \over R_{\mathrm {net} }}=\sum _{i=1}^{N}{1 \over R_{i}}\,\!}

G n e t = ∑ i = 1 N G i {\displaystyle G_{\mathrm {net} }=\sum _{i=1}^{N}G_{i}\,\!}

Charge, capacitors, currents
  • Ci = capacitance of capacitor i
  • qi = charge of charge carrier i
 q n e t = ∑ i = 1 N q i {\displaystyle q_{\mathrm {net} }=\sum _{i=1}^{N}q_{i}\,\!}

1 C n e t = ∑ i = 1 N 1 C i {\displaystyle {1 \over C_{\mathrm {net} }}=\sum _{i=1}^{N}{1 \over C_{i}}\,\!} I n e t = I i {\displaystyle I_{\mathrm {net} }=I_{i}\,\!}

q n e t = ∑ i = 1 N q i {\displaystyle q_{\mathrm {net} }=\sum _{i=1}^{N}q_{i}\,\!}

C n e t = ∑ i = 1 N C i {\displaystyle C_{\mathrm {net} }=\sum _{i=1}^{N}C_{i}\,\!} I n e t = ∑ i = 1 N I i {\displaystyle I_{\mathrm {net} }=\sum _{i=1}^{N}I_{i}\,\!}

Inductors
  • Li = self-inductance of inductor i
  • Lij = self-inductance element ij of L matrix
  • Mij = mutual inductance between inductors i and j
 L n e t = ∑ i = 1 N L i {\displaystyle L_{\mathrm {net} }=\sum _{i=1}^{N}L_{i}\,\!} 1 L n e t = ∑ i = 1 N 1 L i {\displaystyle {1 \over L_{\mathrm {net} }}=\sum _{i=1}^{N}{1 \over L_{i}}\,\!}

V i = ∑ j = 1 N L i j d I j d t {\displaystyle V_{i}=\sum _{j=1}^{N}L_{ij}{\frac {\mathrm {d} I_{j}}{\mathrm {d} t}}\,\!}

Circuit DC Circuit equations AC Circuit equations
Series circuit equations
RC circuits Circuit equation

R d q d t + q C = E {\displaystyle R{\mathrm {d} q \over \mathrm {d} t}+{q \over C}={\mathcal {E}}\,\!}

Capacitor charge q = C E ( 1 − e − t / R C ) {\displaystyle q=C{\mathcal {E}}\left(1-e^{-t/RC}\right)\,\!}

Capacitor discharge q = C E e − t / R C {\displaystyle q=C{\mathcal {E}}e^{-t/RC}\,\!}

RL circuits Circuit equation

L d I d t + R I = E {\displaystyle L{\mathrm {d} I \over \mathrm {d} t}+RI={\mathcal {E}}\,\!}

Inductor current rise I = E R ( 1 − e − R t / L ) {\displaystyle I={\frac {\mathcal {E}}{R}}\left(1-e^{-Rt/L}\right)\,\!}

Inductor current fall I = E R e − t / τ L = I 0 e − R t / L {\displaystyle I={\frac {\mathcal {E}}{R}}e^{-t/\tau _{L}}=I_{0}e^{-Rt/L}\,\!}

LC circuits Circuit equation

L d 2 q d t 2 + q C = E {\displaystyle L{\mathrm {d} ^{2}q \over \mathrm {d} t^{2}}+{q \over C}={\mathcal {E}}\,\!}

Circuit equation

L d 2 q d t 2 + q C = E sin ⁡ ( ω 0 t + ϕ ) {\displaystyle L{\mathrm {d} ^{2}q \over \mathrm {d} t^{2}}+{q \over C}={\mathcal {E}}\sin \left(\omega _{0}t+\phi \right)\,\!}

Circuit resonant frequency ω r e s = 1 L C {\displaystyle \omega _{\mathrm {res} }={1 \over {\sqrt {LC}}}\,\!}

Circuit charge q = q 0 cos ⁡ ( ω t + ϕ ) {\displaystyle q=q_{0}\cos(\omega t+\phi )\,\!}

Circuit current I = − ω q 0 sin ⁡ ( ω t + ϕ ) {\displaystyle I=-\omega q_{0}\sin(\omega t+\phi )\,\!}

Circuit electrical potential energy U E = q 2 2 C = q 0 2 cos 2 ⁡ ( ω t + ϕ ) 2 C {\displaystyle U_{E}={q^{2} \over 2C}={q_{0}^{2}\cos ^{2}(\omega t+\phi ) \over 2C}\,\!}

Circuit magnetic potential energy U B = q 0 2 sin 2 ⁡ ( ω t + ϕ ) 2 C {\displaystyle U_{B}={q_{0}^{2}\sin ^{2}(\omega t+\phi ) \over 2C}\,\!}

RLC circuits Circuit equation

L d 2 q d t 2 + R d q d t + q C = E {\displaystyle L{\mathrm {d} ^{2}q \over \mathrm {d} t^{2}}+R{\mathrm {d} q \over \mathrm {d} t}+{q \over C}={\mathcal {E}}\,\!}

Circuit equation

L d 2 q d t 2 + R d q d t + q C = E sin ⁡ ( ω 0 t + ϕ ) {\displaystyle L{\mathrm {d} ^{2}q \over \mathrm {d} t^{2}}+R{\mathrm {d} q \over \mathrm {d} t}+{q \over C}={\mathcal {E}}\sin \left(\omega _{0}t+\phi \right)\,\!}

Circuit charge

q = q 0 e T − R t / 2 L cos ⁡ ( ω ′ t + ϕ ) {\displaystyle q=q_{0}eT^{-Rt/2L}\cos(\omega 't+\phi )\,\!}

See also

Footnotes

  1. M. Mansfield; C. O'Sullivan (2011). Understanding Physics (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-74637-0.

Sources

Further reading

SI units
Base units
Derived units
with special names
Other accepted units
See also
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